FOUNDATIONS IN FIELD MYCOLOGY

The following documents are intended to fill a gap in available resources both for members taking their first tentative steps on their mycological journey and for those who've been joining us on walks for some time. Our aim has been to provide you with the basics to broaden your understanding, give you more confidence, inspire you to further explore Kingdom Fungi and engage with the challenges it presents. Here we supply you with the necessary building blocks, each topic discussed in a separate document written in user-friendly style, the salient points fully illustrated with diagrams and photos supplied by members past and present.

What ever your level of experience, there will be something new for everyone and we would encourage you to have a browse, either selecting the topics you might feel less assured about or even consuming it all! There's a specially designed key to try out, a glossary of commonly used terms, also introductions to the worlds of truffles and slime moulds - both areas lacking in coverage elsewhere.

Click on one of the following to go directly to that document, or start at the beginning and work your way through!

CONTENTS

Document 1:	Learning about fungi - the first steps
Document 2:	All about Kingdom Fungi and Latin / English names
Document 3:	All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes with illustrated coverage of the basics about the different types of fungi
Document 4:	All about gills and gill attachment
Document 5:	All about spore prints
Document 6:	In the field - what to look for
Document 7:	The 40 commonest woodland fungi in Bucks complete with species list, keys and species profiles
Document 8:	Basic field characters of some common mushroom genera
Document 9:	Glossary of basic mycological terms
Document 10:	All about truffles (by Jesper Launder)
Document 11:	All about slime moulds (by Gill Ferguson and Barry Webb)

Penny and Sarah would like to express their heartfelt thanks to our long-suffering webmaster Peter Davis for his endless patience and time in preparing these documents for the website. Without his skill and diligence this project would not have been possible.

CLICK HERE to send an email to Penny and Sarah if you'd like to make any comments or suggestions for improvements or useful topics we could add.

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Document 1

LEARNING ABOUT FUNGI - THE FIRST STEPS

GENERAL TIPS

• Prepare to be amazed, overawed, baffled, swamped with new confusing names.

• Remember, even the most experienced experts started out just like you: knowing very little, feeling inadequate, struggling to make any headway. Every BFG member can remember just how this feels!

• Be prepared for disappointments! By no means all collections are identified even when studied at home later by expert field mycologists. Failure is frequent and often a humbling experience! But the failures make the moments of success all the sweeter and more rewarding!

ON OUR WALKS

Listen and learn

• When out with the group stay close to one of the leaders or another experienced member. Notice where / how they look to find different fungi, which are the significant features they observe to form their judgements and generally pick their brains at every opportunity. (See also Document 6 entitled In the field - what to look for.) Incidentally, don't expect our walks to be in any way a fitness exercise! Our pace is slow, often very slow when there's plenty of fungi to be found, with much pausing for discussion and sharing of information.

Advice on what fungi to take home

• Collect just a few fungi which take your fancy, maybe some which were named for you in the field. At home you can study them in detail, even make some notes, take a photo, try a spore print - all will help fix a species together with its name in your mind. If you aim to recognise just one or two each time you're out, you'll be making excellent headway. Rather than attempting to memorise too many individual species from the off, a better approach can be to get to grips with recognising the general characteristics of the more common genera (families of species). "What makes that a Russula and not an Amanita?" is an excellent type of question (though not always very easy to answer!) Being able to place a mushroom within the correct genus is an extremely useful skill and will stand you in good stead. This is a tried and tested method, recommended by many mycologists. (Document 8 entitled Basic field characters of some common mushroom genera in table form has been designed to provide some help with this.)

Learning from experience

• There is no substitute for hands-on field experience - this is the best and quickest way to learn about this vast Kingdom of natural history. It is not uncommon for even quite experienced members to collect the same species several times during one of our sessions, fail to recognise it and then be surprised when the leader names it as one they'd asked about only a few minutes earlier! It may well look quite different each time! This is part of the learning curve every budding mycologist experiences. Do not despair! Enjoying the mystery and beauty of this fascinating subject for its own sake is as much a part of this activity as the pursuit of scientific knowledge.

Painting and photography

• Fungi make wonderful subjects for photographers and artists alike. They have some real advantages over other branches of natural history: fungi keep beautifully still and neither flutter frustratingly in the breeze nor run or fly away as you approach! On the other hand their stillness and lack of sound demand a keen and observant eye to spot them. Therein lies the challenge!

Reports and lists

• After each of our walks, a fully illustrated report plus complete species list is prepared by the leader and published on our website at http://www.bucksfungusgroup.org.uk/reports.html within a few days. Here you'll find information covering some of the commoner species we saw as well as those more unusual or rare things we were not able to name in the field. Studying this report is one of the best ways to reinforce what was observed at the time and start getting to grips with all those confusing names. Reading through past reports can also be really useful and is one of the main reasons the reports were first introduced over ten years ago as a learning tool for the benefit of all members.

EQUIPMENT and RESOURCES

In the field

• A camera plus note book / a digital journal / a phone on which to link both photo and fungus name together are clearly very useful and handy tools.

• A x10 handlens (sometimes called a loupe) for examining small species is not essential but highly recommended and many mycologists carry one. As with binoculars, it takes a little time and practice to get the hang of using one. They are readily available online at a reasonable price.

• A small implement, even a teaspoon or similar, is useful for collecting specimens 'whole' without damaging their bases - often essential for identification.

• Some kind of collecting box / small basket is recommended (but not a plastic carrier bag in which everything tends to get mixed up, smashed and covered in debris). It is good practice to keep different species separate to avoid contamination, so some smaller pots with lids within your larger container will help to keep things clean and organised.

• A small handbook / basic fungi guide can be useful to take round with you, especially when out on your own. However, bear in mind that you are quite likely to find species not covered - the world of fungi is far, far too extensive for that. There are over 15,000 different species recorded in the UK alone; no book exists which covers them all, and if it did you certainly wouldn't be able to lift it!

At home

• A larger more comprehensive handbook is invaluable - there are many available to suit all pockets though if you're going to get serious, buy 'Mushrooms & Toadstools' by Geoffrey Kibby - 4 volumes recently produced (2017-23) so with up-to-date names, beautifully illustrated and user-friendly. (Volume 5 is in the pipeline.)

• Highly recommended is 'An initial guide to the identification of mushrooms and toadstools' by Paul Nichols, available from Summerfield Books for around £9. It is specifically designed for beginners and with it you'll learn how to follow a basic key to get you to the correct genus, and armed with that information you can move on to your handbook and (with luck) locate your species within that genus. (Document 8 entitled Basic field characters of some common mushroom genera in table form has also been designed to provide some help with this.)

The internet

• This is a wonderful resource, providing a wealth of information with many varied images of individual species, though it should be born in mind that data therein is liable to error and misidentifications abound. As with any online topic, those who contribute data are often enthusiasts but not necessarily experts. On the other hand, the big advantage of the web is that where a book can offer you only one small illustration, there is no restriction to the number available online. Fungi don't read or adhere to a written description and are notorious for 'breaking the rules': aging, weather and environmental conditions influence their growth and development, resulting in a huge variety of appearance within any one species, thus making the mycologist's task even more taxing. Having access to a wide range of online images which can show a species in all its guises is invaluable.

Social media - the pros and cons

• Social media is now very active in the mycological world and can be very useful for sourcing discussion and identification from photos, though the same caution should be applied here as mentioned above re the web. The British Mycological Society (BMS) has a reputable Facebook page where many experts contribute, and comes highly recommended.

Apps - the pros and cons

• Various apps which claim to be able to name fungi from a photo are becoming quite popular and for the beginner can on occasion be a useful starting point to suggest a possible direction for further research using your guidebook or other online help. However, as already stated above, fungi don't adhere to the rules and are far too numerous and varied for a system of this sort to be reliable. Please treat any suggested names given by an app with extreme caution! After all, why should an app be better able to make a determination from a photo than any respected mycologist with years of experience in the field and who would not dream of naming certain species without recourse to a microscope? Apps for the identification of other Kingdoms of natural history are becoming more and more popular and reliable, but then there are far fewer numbers involved. We've already mentioned above the thousands of fungi present in the UK; bear in mind that mushrooms alone total in the region of 3000!

AI - the pros and cons

• It would be remiss not to mention here the rapid growth and potential benefits, limitations and risks of Artificial Intelligence - much in the news recently. The large language models such as the chatbot ChatGPT can answer any question using the information from the entire internet and have the facility for one to actually ask a question out loud (as if addressing Alexa or Siri) rather than typing it conventionally. Such chatbots are already reasonably reliable at naming morphologically distinct fungi - ie those having distinctive features making them visually recognisable - if given a good description. However, the degree of accuracy is entirely dependent on the reliability of any description and the accuracy of the describer. It stands to reason that a detailed knowledgeable description is likely to achieve a more reliable result than "What is this brown mushroom?". Knowing what features are significant and how to describe them is therefore all-important. (This topic is fully explored in Document 6 entitled 'In the field - what to look for'.) On receiving a clearly inadequate or incorrect response, presumably the user would then provide further description, making even that exercise a useful learning tool. The observations made above re 'Apps - the pros and cons' are equally applicable here. AI can be not only unreliable but on occasion pure fabrication! On balance, as for apps, rather than accepting any identification as automatically correct and trustworthy, it would be wise to treat it as a helpful starting point from which to cross reference using other more conventional sources. To its credit, ChatGPT gives details of its source references, but it should be born in mind that some sources are themselves AI generated. This in turn can compound any inaccuracies, creating further error, thus knowing your source is reliable is of vital importance. We are now beginning to see Mycologists utilising AI tools for developing keys to fungi. The potential of this is boundless and exciting as long as harnessed in effective and positive ways. Any such keys can only be as reliable as the mycological information on which they are based. (This is true of any key, conventional or otherwise.) AI in mycology is definitely an area to watch but at this early stage the recommendation is "Use with a large helping of discretion and caution".

BFG Website, Members' Finds

• Our own BFG website has a very popular and well supported page, Members' Finds, found at http://www.bucksfungusgroup.org.uk/finds.htm. This has been running since 2020, its purpose being to provide both BFG members and any interested members of the public with information about what's fruiting where at the moment in the county. The notes accompanying the many photos are intentionally written in simple user-friendly style and include many useful tips on recognition etc, whether a species is common or rare, in what sort of environment / substrate you might expect to find it, and much more. We now have well over 1000 species illustrated - all photos taken by members within the county, many species with multiple images showing their different aspects and characteristics, and many identified using a microscope. It is hoped that you will not only start exploring this unique resource but will also soon be contributing to it!

A FEW HOUSE RULES

Permission to pick

• Not all sites open to public access allow the picking or removal of fungi. No BFG walks take place without first receiving permission to visit and collect from the landowners, whether owned privately or by an organisation such as the National Trust, Woodland Trust etc.

• Most organisations require proof of the group's insurance before granting permission for a visit. BFG together with the many other similar groups nationwide are affiliated to the British Mycological Society which provides our insurance cover for public liability up to £5,000,000. However, please bear in mind that children / dogs are entirely the responsibility of their parents / owners. Furthermore, should you wander off during a BFG walk and become separated from the group, get lost or injured, BFG cannot be held responsible.

• On our walks the leaders do their best to keep tabs on attendees' whereabouts but often with the numbers involved factions tend to splinter off at times. A whistle is sometimes used to summon attendees if, for instance, there is a change of plan / direction or if something especially exciting has been found.

• If planning to go out collecting on your own, you are advised to familiarise yourself with and abide by the Countryside Code at https://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/field_mycology/conservation/code-conduct Please adhere strictly to any notices prohibiting collection if displayed.

Damaging the fungal organism

• This is a controversial topic, but the generally accepted thinking is that picking the fruiting body of a fungus is not damaging to the whole organism in the same way as picking part of a plant. Collecting wild flowers or digging up wild plants is known to be damaging and therefore not permitted and against the law. Fungi are not related to plants, belonging to their own separate kingdom of natural history and in fact having more in common with the animal kingdom (see also Document 2 entitled All about Kingdom Fungi). Many species cannot be identified purely by viewing in situ, therefore to appreciate their diversity and work out their identity it is often necessary to collect a sample and examine all features visible not only to the naked eye but also with a x10 lens or microscope. Picking a fungus is arguably no more damaging to the organism than picking an apple from a tree or a blackberry from a bramble: the vast majority of any fungal organism is its fine network of mycelium hidden below ground or within its chosen substrate. What we see above ground is purely the fruiting body of this much larger organism - a tiny part of the whole which is often short-lived, lasting only long enough to distribute its spores. The fruiting body then often perishes, leaving the remaining organism to continue long afterwards, often for years.

• There are a few UK fungi which are, however, considered endangered or vulnerable - the cause of their scarcity often unknown or not fully understood. These are retained on a Red Data List and as such are protected by law. (See https://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/field_mycology/conservation/red-data-list.)

• It is BFG policy to collect only what is necessary for identification purposes and to leave as much as possible intact and undamaged for others to enjoy. Furthermore it should be born in mind that fungi provide an important food source for many creatures as well as much needed nutrients for the surrounding plantlife.

Edible fungi

BFG members - especially inexperienced members - are not encouraged to collect for the pot. The group policy is based upon discovering, enjoying, learning about and recording fungi with conservation in mind. Yes, on our walks you will learn about the good edible species, and members with sufficient experience do sometimes take a few edibles home to enjoy - site owners permitting - but our remit is primarily scientific and not gastronomic!

Poisonous fungi

Despite fears to the contrary, all fungi in the UK are safe to handle: there is no danger in picking, handling or closely studying even our most deadly mushrooms. However, after contact with fungi it is a sensible precaution to wash your hands before eating or drinking. The toxins within a poisonous fungus can only enter our bloodstream if ingested / swallowed. If you have a particular interest in collecting for the pot, the study and recognition of poisonous fungi is just as essential as the edible species for obvious reasons. We have a number of extremely dangerous species in the UK, some quite common in the county, consumption of which leads to organ failure and death. Despite medical advances many toxins found in fungi have no antidote. Many species can cause mild or even severe gastric upset, also heart palpitations. There exist many 'old wives tales' that allegedly indicate which fungi are good to eat and which are not. A few examples: a silver spoon turning black when placed in the cooking pot with a mushroom is a sign that it's poisonous; cooking long and thoroughly will make even poisonous fungi safe to eat; if fungi have been nibbled by wildlife in the field, they must be safe to eat. NONE of these are true, nor the many other legends that exist! Each individual poisonous species must be learnt to be recognised in all its different guises. Crucially, apps must never be relied upon to do this job for you. We know of one incident where the deadly poisonous Amanita phalloides (Death Cap), common in the Chilterns, was identified on an app as a choice edible! A single cap of this mushroom contains enough amatoxins to kill six adults with no known antidote! You have been warned!

FUNGUS RECORDS AND RECORDING

• BFG is a member of a network of UK fungus groups affiliated to the British Mycological Society, all of which contribute records in one way or another to help support the conservation of these vital organisms. We have our own BFG database into which all our records are fed, now running into many thousands. It is now somewhat outdated, however, and much in need of replacing. A brand new version, using Access, is in the pipeline and once operational it is hoped that members will be able to have their own a copy to use for reference though record entry will remain restricted to the group leaders. Being able to check how often, when, where, with what substrate a species has been found before can be not only interesting but extremely useful when working out an identification particularly of the rarer species. All our records are eventually transferred to the Fungal Records Database of Britain and Ireland (FRDBI), managed by the British Mycological Society and available to all online.

NOW TO THE WOODS!

Having absorbed the above information you are ready to start discovering the fascinating world of field mycology. We hope you enjoy the journey either with or without BFG in support, but in addition why not explore the ten further documents in this section of our website? They provide a wealth of information and are presented in a user-friendly way, specially designed to help you get to grips with understanding fungi, where and what to look for, how to check spore colour, how to start recognising the different genera and the most common species in our woods, and much much more ..........

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Document 2

All about KINGDOM FUNGI and LATIN / ENGLISH NAMES

This is a vast topic and here we attempt to do no more than scratch the surface; there is further information available online if required. Our purpose is to provide some basic background facts and explain a bit of the history behind some of the many issues confronting the amateur mycologist.

Mycology and Field Mycology

Firstly a quick word about two terms not everyone may be familiar with and which will crop up throughout these pages. Mycology is a branch of biology, specifically the scientific study of fungi. Field study is scientific research and collection of data carried out in the natural environment as opposed to in the laboratory; it follows that field mycology is the activity we in local fungus groups are engaged in.

KINGDOM FUNGI, ongoing discovery and exploration

Kingdom Fungi is one of the most ancient on the planet, evolving before plants and animals. The longer time span has allowed this kingdom to proliferate and diversify, producing an extraordinary number of different species, many of which we are only just discovering. We know of at least 15,000 different species in the UK alone and worldwide this figure rises to a staggering 155,000. Even more mind-blowing is the recent estimate (2023) that the global figure is likely to rise to 2.5 million, thereby implying that over 90% of species are still awaiting discovery! It is a sobering thought that inevitably many of these are likely to become extinct before we are aware of them. The number of species new to science has literally 'mushroomed' since the introduction of DNA sequencing (more on this topic below) with over 2,500 per year having been added worldwide since the start of 2020. This includes all types of fungi, only a small proportion of which are mushrooms, toadstools, cup fungi and the like - ie what the 'man in the street' would recognise as fungi. Furthermore, over this same period our own UK list of mushrooms, toadstools, cup fungi etc has been increasing by an average of 130 species per year. It is predicted that this rate of general discovery will continue exponentially for the foreseeable future.

CITIZEN SCIENCE and BFG

Whilst scientific development becomes ever more technical and to many somewhat specialised and incomprehensible, there is still a vitally important role to be played by the amateur, particularly in the study of mycology. This is where BFG and the many other local groups around the country are able to make an important contribution. A significant proportion of those species new to the UK in the last few years will have been found by amateurs like us. Unlike our European neighbours, sadly we have a dearth of professional field mycologists functioning in the UK - even those considered our top experts in the field are amateurs. This in no way belittles their expertise because many are dedicated, extremely knowledgeable and skilled, often with international standing, and all will probably have started their journey by joining their local fungus group in order to learn from others with more experience. To our shame we in the UK have lagged behind many European countries with regard to recognising the important role practical field studies can and should play within mycological science, consequently the limited funds available are focused purely on the medicinal research aspect of mycology at university level and beyond. At present mycology in general, and field mycology in particular, plays little or no part in many biology degrees or in the secondary school science curriculum - a sorry state of affairs. There are signs of change afoot, however, with discussion under way for the inclusion of at least some aspects of mycology at GCSE and A level. Furthermore public interest has been growing of late with publications such as Merlin Sheldrake's fascinating book Entangled Life leading the way. Certainly mycology appears to be gaining ground with increasing recognition of its significance within the ecosystem role, this borne out by the growing membership of local groups around the country such as BFG.

BFG was formed in 1998 - many county groups have been in existence far longer than that - and from simple beginnings our group has now become one of the largest in the country. We have a substantial and growing county species list, with additions regularly discovered and identified by more experienced members either on our walks or through their own private study. We've contributed a number of species new to the UK list, recently even a couple new to science now confirmed with molecular sequencing. There is ample opportunity for anyone with sufficient enthusiasm for mycology to acquire the necessary experience and skills to start contributing in this way. Martyn Ainsworth - Research Leader, Fungal Diversity & Systematics at RBG Kew and mycologist extraordinaire - when recently consulted by us about the number of species added to the UK list since the start of 2020, expressed the following: "The figures for the last few years were enormously boosted by the efforts of DNA enabled local recording groups which have been a real game changer, and all due credit to them!" We live in exciting times!

WHY FUNGI MATTER

Fungi have been performing an essential role within the ecosystem for many millennia. Two ways in which they contribute to the health and longevity of life on our planet are (a) by accelerating the rate of decomposition of organic matter, thereby returning vital nutrients to the soil for the benefit of the many soil-dependent organisms, and (b) by forming mycorrhizal relationships with many plants by existing either on or within their roots, supplying those plants with basic minerals not otherwise available to them. This symbiotic (co-operative) union also acts as a massive extension to the spread of a plant's root system, providing a further source of water which can in turn improve that plant's chances of survival in drought conditions. In return the fungus receives vital sugars and other nutrients via the plant's ability to photosynthesise - not amongst Kingdom Fungi's armoury. There is now evidence that this mutually beneficial strategy is enjoyed by the vast majority of the plant kingdom, improving the health and survival rate of all plants enjoying this association worldwide.

LATIN NAMES - why they are important and useful

Love them or hate them, Latin names for fungi are here to stay! All organisms on the planet - be they animal, plant, insect, fungus, moss, etc - are designated an official scientific Latinised binomial (a two word name). Names are constructed from botanical Latin or Greek, sometimes a combination of both, and are often descriptive-based or alternatively formed from names of famous scientists - for fungi, mycologists. Undertaking some research into their meaning by analysing the derivation of their component parts is not only interesting but also helps to commit a name to memory together with any features referred to therein. A few examples: Lactarius fluens - the generic name (or genus) tells us it has milk-like latex within, the specific epithet (or species name) tells us the milk in this particular species flows copiously! Parasola auricoma - the generic name tells us it is shaped like a parasol, the specific epithet tells us it has golden hairs which in this species is a unique feature within the genus. The magnificently named Phaeolus schweinitzii is memorable for its own sake (once one can get ones tongue around it!); the generic name tells us it is dark or obscure, the specific epithet honours the 18th Century American scientist von Schweinitz.

Linnaeus and taxonomy (the science of naming a species)

The classification system for all living organisms on our planet was devised back in the 18th Century by the famous Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus. This comprehensive system is still in place today and has the important advantage of being recognised worldwide, providing an internationally shared language for scientific taxonomy.

The hierarchy of life on earth

Here we attempt to give some sense of scale to the Linnaeus system and where we humans sit within the system in relation to Kingdom Fungi and fungus names. First, the categories:
Life : Domain : Kingdom : Phylum : Class : Order: Family : Genus : Species.
The last two categories, genus and species, are those which form any binomial, the generic name and specific epithet, we humans being Homo sapiens.

The process of validating a new name

Whatever the kingdom, the publication of any new species to science is governed by strict international rules which have evolved since Linnaeus's day. Any such publication which does not adhere to these rules is likely to be rejected and pronounced invalid. The name of a new species is chosen by the author - the person who discovers and first describes it. Until recently it was obligatory that any new species should be described in Latin, but thankfully this is no longer required. All new species require a 'type' - the fruitbody or collection of fruitbodies from which the initial full description was derived. The type is then preserved and deposited in a recognised herbarium or similar (according to the organism) as a voucher for future research and reference, and to which all future specimens given that name should adhere. There are various international outlets, eg scientific magazines, where such publications may be made (following strict guidelines) and nowadays a DNA sequence is obligatory as proof that a species is genuinely new and previously undescribed, the sequence is then registered with Genbank - an international open access sequence database.

The binomial system - how a Latin name is constructed and used

A Latin binomial consists of the generic name first (equivalent to our surname) and the specific epithet second (equivalent to our first name), ie in the reverse order to how we name individuals in our English system (the equivalent would be Churchill Winston or Shakespeare William). Latin names traditionally should be italicised with the generic name capitalised - starting with an upper case, the specific epithet starting with a lower case, eg Amanita muscaria. In texts, once the full two-word name has been established within a sentence or paragraph, the generic name is often abbreviated thus: Amanita muscaria becomes A. muscaria.

The pronunciation of Latin names

Similar to our often anxious attempts to speak a foreign language when abroad, pronouncing a Latin name can be somewhat daunting and unnerving to those starting off in mycology, especially if a name has only been encountered in written form but then needs to be spoken out loud! There are those amongst the mycological community who would insist that their pronounciation - be it 'right' or 'wrong' - is the only way, arguing their case if challenged. In reality there are no hard and fast rules - after all, Latin names are of necessity new inventions, often formed from a combination of several words. What matters is that both speaker and listener understand each other and are discussing the same organism! Those of us who've been at this game for many years are likely to pronounce names in the way they were first introduced to us - old habits die hard. Fashions change, however, and we live in a world where 'anything goes' and many old fashioned conventions are no longer adhered to. Our BFG policy is "Well done! You knew what the Latin name was! Say it however you want!"

ENGLISH NAMES and how they came about

We as a nation are not renowned for our language skills. For most kingdoms of natural history we have traditionally preferred to use a colloquial English name rather than its Latin binomial, ie Common Frog in place of Rana temporaria; Atlantic Cod in place of Gadus morhua - who amongst us has heard of those Latin names?! Over the centuries various English 'nicknames' for common fungi have evolved within different communities. Some were published in handbooks of the day but with no consistency, consequently a few common species confusingly evolved with more than one colloquial name (eg either King Alfred's Cakes or Cramp Balls for Daldinia concentrica). Earlier this Century the British Mycological Society introduced an 'official' list of Common English Names for fungi, starting with a modest hundred or so and incorporating many of the established colloquial names. This list is a work in process and has now expanded with names provided for several thousand species, no longer only for common fungi. The list is available to all on the BMS website at https://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/resources/english-names and is an extremely useful resource, now officially known as the list of Recommended English Names (REN).

DNA - the advantage...

The last 10 years have seen unprecedented advances in our understanding of Kingdom Fungi brought about by the introduction of molecular sequencing. There are countless instances where the relationship and groupings of many species traditionally accepted by mycologists worldwide have been turned on their heads, necessitating a seemingly endless stream of Latin name changes both at genus and species level to reflect the latest knowledge. Furthermore the number of species new to science discovered through sequencing has soared in recent years.

...and disadvantages

Though undoubtedly a huge step forward for the science of mycology, the DNA era brings with it some serious headaches for us field mycologists. The Latin names in handbooks and other literature published prior to this era are now thoroughly out of date, moreover not only must we contend with entirely new names for familiar species but in many instances species have been reallocated to other existing or even newly created genera. A few examples: Psathyrella conopilus (Conical Brittlestem) has moved genus, becoming Parasola conopilea; Inocybe maculata (Frosty Fibrecap) has moved to a newly created genus, becoming Inosperma maculatum; the tiny yellow common cup fungus Bisporella sulfurea (Sulphur Disco) has changed both genus and species name, becoming Calycina claroflava. Note also here that the niceties of Latin declensions demand that the ending of a species name - the adjective - must match the gender of the genus name - the noun. Consequently the process of moving a species from one genus to another can often entail a change of ending for the species name just to add to our confusion! Two of the examples quoted above illustrate this point. Add to this already challenging situation the extraordinary number of species recently new to science which are not yet covered in any available books or keys. Our headache has just become a migraine!

Where English names have the advantage

Before the introduction of REN (mentioned under English names a little earlier) mycologists were traditionally 'brought up' purely on Latin fungus names, though no doubt many budding naturalists were dissuaded from persevering with mycology because of this - they just couldn't stomach the unfamiliar and confusing 'foreign language' for such vast numbers of species. With the advent of our more conservation-conscious society the introduction of English names alongside their Latin counterparts has grown in popularity and is welcomed by many. Such names have gone some way towards making mycology less intimidating and alerting the wider public to the vital role Kingdom Fungi plays in the ecosystem and health of the planet. In short, mycology has become much more accessible and user-friendly. This trend towards the introduction of English names is not universally popular amongst the mycological community, however, with purists spurning their use and not all recent handbooks including them. With the coming of the DNA era and consequent nomenclatural upheaval, the inclusion of both the Latin binomial and English name together now has a significant advantage: though a Latin name may change, its English equivalent does not, thus providing some much needed stability and continuity.

BFG POLICY on the use of names

The leaders and more experienced members of BFG would probably best be described as traditionalist mycologists, having learnt their skills prior to the introduction of REN and consequently still feeling much more comfortable using Latin names despite the fact that this now entails much 're-learning' to keep pace with the many recent changes. We at BFG have been aware for some time, however, that those just starting off with mycology are generally more comfortable with English names for obvious reasons. We have therefore adopted the policy of using both Latin and English names side by side - eg Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric), though there are many quite common species which still have no English name. It should be stressed however that the Latin name is still considered its official name - if you like, the senior partner - and this is not likely to change. You'll find that on the Reports and Lists page, also in Members' Finds and elsewhere on our website, we include both Latin and English names (and to avoid confusion and provide continuity will often reference the previous Latin name as well if there's been a recent change). On one of our walks you will probably notice that the leaders may well have a Latin name readily at their fingertips but will struggle to recall the English equivalent. Hopefully you will now understand why.

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Document 3

All about BASIDIOMYCETES and ASCOMYCETES

Here we attempt to familiarise you with some of the basics about the different types of fungi you are most likely to encounter in our Buckinghamshire woodland / grassland sites, and to introduce you to some mycological terms in common usage.

Kingdom Fungi and phyla

Kingdom Fungi is divided into several different sections called phyla (singular phylum) according to their system of producing spores - the equivalent of seeds in plants. Online you'll find the number of phyla varies according to author and date but at the last count (2019) there appear to be nine! For field mycologists the two most significant phyla - containing the vast majority of species we encounter in the field - are the basidiomycetes (Latin: Basidiomycota - the spore-droppers) and the ascomycetes (Latin: Ascomycota - the spore-shooters). Both terms are derived from the names of their spore-producing cells though are often conveniently shortened to basidios and ascos, and you're likely find they crop up regularly in any discussion about fungi.

Using a microscope for mycology

With experience in the field comes the ability to recognise to which of these two phyla a species might belong purely from its general appearance in the field, or 'jizz' - a term meaning the combination of visible characteristics that serve to identify a particular organism, introduced originally to birdwatching but equally applicable to mycology. There are of course exceptions - where field characteristics of basidios and ascos are common to both. This is where a microscope is essential because the difference between the spore-producing cells of the two phyla - invisible to the naked eye - becomes obvious when highly magnified.

A basidio or an asco - does it really matter which?

Yes, because knowing to which phylum your species belongs is the first basic step towards working out its identity, thus saving much wasted time searching through irrelevant reference books and getting more and more confused! We humans are inquisitive by nature and much of the fun in mycology is derived from the searching and finding process followed by the learning curve of recognising a specific fungus. From the scientific and conservation point of view, an important part of the role of any fungus group such as BFG (as citizen scientists) is to name and record species and to do this meaningfully we need to be sure that we're as accurate and reliable as we can be. Fungal spores and the cells which produce them are literally microscopic and can only be seen in sufficient detail to be useful in identification if magnified up to x 400, and - spores in particular - preferably up to x 1000! In order to differentiate between species - let alone between genera or phyla - precise measurements of spores and various different types of cells are made using microns. One micron equals one thousandth of a millimetre or, to put it in more realistic terms, about one thousandth of a pin head or a poppy seed! It follows that in many cases, whether trying to work out the identity of your fungus to phylum, genus or species level, a microscope is an essential and invaluable tool to the serious mycologist.

Spores

All fungi, to whichever phylum they belong, produce literally millions of spores. These come in all shapes and sizes, and - as a very rough guide - in basidios and ascos measure somewhere in the region of 5-20 microns in length according to species (with exceptions of course!). The majority will perish before ever reaching a suitable substrate for fertilisation and reproduction to take place. Fungal spores are so tiny and light that they are everywhere around us, in the air we breathe, continually circulating round the planet on the off-chance that just a few will make it somewhere appropriate to provide favourable conditions for germination and the continuation of that particular species. One can surmise that our most common species are those with spores which achieve the best success rate and our rarest are those with spores which struggle to find a suitable spot for success, whatever the reason. There is so much about Kingdom Fungi we do not fully understand; suffice it to say that for fungal spores the 'safety in numbers' rule applies - a system successfully adopted by many other organisms over the millennia.

BASIDIOMYCETES - THE SPORE-DROPPERS

This phylum contains the bulk of the fungi we find and record on our walks, including all mushrooms and toadstools, brackets, polypores and corticioids, jelly fungi, puffballs and the like, coral fungi, also the rusts and smuts.

Basidia

Basidium diagram

All basidomycetes - however different in appearance - have one thing in common: they are made up of hyphae (singular hypha - long filamentous structures), some of which develop to form the specialist cells which produce the spores. These cells are the basidia (singular basidium). In nearly all species in this phylum each basidium has four prongs at one end called sterigmata (singular sterigma), a very few species have basidia with more than four sterigmata, a very few have less than four. Each sterigma develops a single spore (sometimes called a basidiospore) at its tip. In shape a basidium with its four sterigmata is not unlike an upturned cow's udder!

Spore distribution

When mature the spores drop off the tip of the sterigmata and either land on whatever is beneath (from gravity) or are distributed further afield via a variety of methods: air currents, water droplets, adhering to some passing creature or consumed by it thereby passing unharmed through its gut, etc. Fungal spores are too small to see individually with the naked eye but sometimes can be seen 'en masse' as a fine powder in the field when a spore deposit has been dropped (a) from one mushroom cap onto its very close neighbour when the spore colour differs from the cap colour, (b) from a fungus onto the surrounding substrate which again shows up due to the colour difference. (For more about spore colour see Document 5 entitled All about sporeprints.)

There follows a basic description of some different types of basidiomycetes:

Mushrooms and toadstools

We are often asked "What's the difference between a mushroom and a toadstool?" The two terms are somewhat confusing and in fact mean much the same thing: basically a fungus having a cap and stem. Traditionally all edible species were loosely called mushrooms, all others were called toadstools. Our familiar 'shop' mushroom - either white or brown capped, grown commercially and sold everywhere - belongs in scientific terms to genus Agaricus (with upper case A and italics) - official English family name: Mushroom (with upper case M). Agaricus is a large genus of which just a very few species are able to be cultivated. On our walks we often come across this genus, many members of which are considered excellent edibles but one should be aware that several are in fact quite toxic. Nowadays the terms mushroom or agaric (both with lower case 'm') are used to indicate any unnamed fungus having a cap and stem, whether edible or poisonous, rendering the term toadstool more or less obsolete though its use is likely to persist for the sceptical public who still retain a superstitious fear of all wild mushrooms, linking them with witches, spells and broomsticks! Still confused about the difference? This is where a Latin name helps to clarify the situation. A field mycologist will apply the terms 'mushroom' or 'agaric' (with lower case 'm' or 'a') to any unidentified species with cap and stem, using the Latin Agaricus (with upper case 'A') only when that particular genus applies, thereby over-riding the now more or less irrelevant term 'toadstool'. Problem solved.

Amanita excelsa
(Grey Spotted Amanita) SP

All mushrooms (including, if you like, toadstools!) have a cap with the spore-bearing surface on the underside. This can take the form of (a) gills (also sometimes called lamellae, found in most mushrooms), (b) tubes with pores (tiny holes, found only in the Bolete family), or (c) spines (found in just one or two unusual genera). (For more about gills, pores and spines see Document 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment.) The vast majority of mushrooms have a central stem under the cap, some have an eccentric stem (one that is off-centre, arising from one side), a few have no stem at all, according to species.

Click on any small image to view at full size

Brackets (sometimes called Shelf Fungi)

Daedaleopsis confragosa
(Blushing Bracket) DJS

The term 'bracket' is loosely applied to those fungi often (but not always) growing at right-angles to their wood substrate - similar to a bracket supporting a shelf. They (nearly always) lack a stem, tend to be hard and woody (though some are soft), and most often (but not always) have pores (tiny round openings) on their underside through which their spores drop when mature. (We hope at this point you have realised that generalising about fungi is seldom possible: there is an exception to every rule!) Brackets are basically wood-rotting accelerants and grow on living and dead tree trunks, stumps and branches - either attached or fallen. Some species are quite small - only a few cms across, others can be anything up to two feet across, occasionally even more.

Polypores

Cerioporus squamosus
(Dryad's Saddle) PC

Polypores are closely related to the brackets having pores beneath, but they have a stem - usually central more like a mushroom. (In fact at first glance a polypore might be mistaken for a mushroom until examined more closely.) Unlike the Bolete family (mushrooms having pores beneath), polypores are thin-fleshed, tough and leathery in texture and grow on fallen trunks / branches, whereas boletes are relatively thick-fleshed, are often soft and spongy in texture and grow in soil in association with trees. A further difference: polypore tubes and pores resist separation from the flesh within the cap whereas the tubes and pores in Boletes readily separate from the flesh. Most polypores are small to medium in size - up to about 6-8 cms across, one species is very large - up to 2 ft across and with an offset short stem.

Corticioids (Crust fungi)

Resinicium bicolor
(Hallowed Crust) CVS

Also related to the brackets, corticioids lack a cap, gills or stem though can have pores. They grow virtually flat along the surface of wood / woody stems, often on the underside of fallen branches and logs. They have extremely thin flesh with the fertile spore-bearing surface on the outside. The basidia in this group tend to have six or eight sterigmata. Many corticioids are whitish (hence sometimes affectionately nicknamed 'white paint' by mycologists) and most are very tricky to identify, nearly always needing microscopic examination.

Jelly fungi

This is a varied group, lacking a cap, gills or pores and having flexible, rubbery, gelatinous, or moist texture. Only the Stagshorns have a stem and can be somewhat similar in appearance to the coral fungi (see below). Jelly fungi grow on living and fallen wood of many types, often appearing after periods of wet weather. They become shrivelled in dry periods but can often rehydrate with further rain. The basidia in this group can have somewhat extended sterigmata reminiscent of the prongs of a tuning fork and varying in number from 1 to 4. (See also under ascomycete jelly fungi below.)

Auricularia auricula-judae (Wood Ear) NS

Tremella mesenterica (Yellow Brain) JT

Exidia nigricans (Warlock's Butter) DJS

Calocera viscosa (Yellow Staghorn) JLo

Puffballs, earthballs, earthstars, stinkhorns, birds nests (sometimes called the Gasteroid or Stomach fungi)

Another very varied group of fungi but still under the vast umbrella of the Basidiomycota. This is in fact an assemblage of unrelated genera grouped together for (our) convenience because they happen to have evolved a similar system of spore production and dispersal. Spores are produced within the fruiting body rather than on the outside as in other basidiomycetes. Most people are familiar with a puffball, having a typically rounded shape and undifferentiated stem. When the spore mass within is mature the peridium (outer 'skin' of a puffball) thins at the top, allowing a hole to form through which spores are released when the surface is depressed by some chance encounter such as a raindrop, breath of wind, passing animal or boot. This is sufficient to set in motion a visible 'cloud' of spores which emanate through the hole often forming a tiny puff of brown smoke. Earthballs and earthstars distribute spores in a similar manner.

Lycoperdon pyriforme (Stump Puffball) PC

Scleroderma verrucosum (Scaly Earthball) PC

Geastrum triplex (Collared Earthstar) PC

Phallus impudicus
(Stinkhorn) CVS

Stinkhorns (and cages) use a different method of spore dispersal, giving off a pervasive and (to us) revolting smell from the gleba - a gooey substance which acts as a magnet to some insects. A fly then lands on the smelly sticky top of the stinkhorn, feasting on it whilst the spores - contained within the slime - adhere to its legs, thus ensuring a free aero-taxi service to wherever the insect lands next. A similar method is employed by plants which attract bees with their sweet nectar and which then conveniently carry away the pollen which adheres to their legs. Stinkhorn spores are formed within a gelatinous 'egg' which develops in woodland litter, and when mature the egg transforms (often overnight) into its familiar phallic shape with the spores now within its dark smelly gleba at its tip. It is often possible to locate a Stinkhorn in woodland from metres away purely by tracing the source of its foul smell.

Cyathus striatus
(Fluted Bird's Nest) PC

Birds nest fungi are so-named because they appear to us to mimic tiny nests (less than 1 cm across) and even have 'eggs' inside, the eggs being tiny round packets, each filled with masses of spores. When mature the packets are literally splashed out by raindrops, taking their spores with them for distribution and leaving the perfectly formed hollow mini-nest behind. Once you've seen your first Birds Nest Fungus you won't forget it!

Coral fungi (also known as Clavarioid species)

This group of fungi do what it says on the tin: they look very similar to underwater corals. Mostly only a few inches tall, some are single (the Clubs), some are branched, some form tight clusters. Many are yellow, white or beige but a few are pink, and very rarely purple or black. Some are grassland specialists, some are only found in woodland litter.

Clavulina coralloides (Crested Coral) PC

Ramaria stricta (Upright Coral) PC

Clavulinopsis helvola (Yellow Club) DJS

Clavaria fumosa (Smoky Spindles) PG

Rusts, smuts and mildews

This vast group - included here for completion - are plant pathogens comprising many species infecting plants of all sorts. They mainly fruit in Spring and are host specific - ie each species will only infect one particular plant or family of plants. Some rusts progress through up to five different stages of development (sometimes months apart) using up to two specific but different host plants for the various stages. Rusts and mildews affect the leaves and stems of plants whereas smuts affect the reproductive parts of flowers. These fungi are generally considered a somewhat specialised group by mycologists and on our walks only a limited number are regularly recognised and recorded by the group.

Kuehneola uredinis (Pale Bramble Rust) NS

Antherospora hortensis (Grape Hyacinth Smut) SJE

Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae (White Campion Smut) JLa

Erysiphe heraclei (Hogweed Smut) JLa

ASCOMYCETES - THE SPORE-SHOOTERS

This is the largest phylum - even bigger than the basidiomycetes - with a staggering 400,000 species known worldwide, enveloping 75% of Kingdom Fungi. The many different types of ascomycete are enormously varied but those we find and record on our walks fall loosely into two main categories: the discomycetes (including cup fungi and morels) and the pyrenomycetes (flask fungi - often hard, crusty and brown or black). Many are tiny and a x10 handlens is essential to appreciate their detail (or in some cases even to see them at all!).

Ascus diagram

All species within this phylum have one thing in common: within their structure they develop cells called asci (singular ascus) which produce the spores. Asci are very different in shape from basidia and are usually long, thin and cylindrical, furthermore unlike basidia they lack sterigmata and spores are developed entirely within each ascus until mature. The asci are positioned with their tips just under the outer surface of fungal tissue. In most species each ascus contains a row of 8 spores (also called ascospores) which are aligned like peas in a pod; a few species have asci containing many more than 8.

Sexual and asexual spores

The life cycle of fungi is a fascinating and complicated subject - not one for us to go into too too much detail here. There is plenty of information available online for the scientifically minded who would like to know more. Suffice it to say that in some species within this phylum two different types of spore can occur. Both basidiospores and ascospores are sexual spores, ie two spores need to mate for germination to occur. However, many ascomycetes - also a very few basidiomycetes - also produce asexual spores called conidia (or conidiospores). These particular species have an asexual stage within their life cycle as well as a sexual stage, though by and large it is the sexual fruitbodies we encounter in the field. This sexual stage is called the teleomorph when asci and ascospores are produced; the asexual stage is called the anamorph when asexual conidia are produced.

Spore distribution

Ascomycetes have a different mechanism of dispersal into the air from basidiomycetes. When the spores are mature they are forcibly ejected from the ascus tip, literally shot out at pressure to give them a 'head start'. This process of release can be triggered by as little as a breath of wind or change in air pressure, and sometimes can be witnessed when a visible fine cloud of spores forms for a split second - as is seen with puffballs and the like. Sometimes this can be induced by gently blowing on the mature fruiting body whilst watching carefully for the immediate spore release this triggers in response.

Click on the video to watch a burst of pale spores emanating from the cup fungus Aleuria aurantia (Orange Peel Fungus) (SJE)

As with basidiomycetes, once free of the fruiting body the spores depend upon air currents, water droplets, passing animals etc for distribution.

Discomycetes (cup fungi) - often shortened to discos

There are many different types of discos, ranging enormously in size from hardly visible to the naked eye to 12 cms across or more. The outer and / or inner surface can be hairy to smooth, wrinkled to veined, soft and fleshy to hard and dry. Some are stemmed, some not, they can be distinctly cup-shaped to more shallow or even almost flat, regular or irregular in shape, almost any colour, occur on a range of different substrates, etc, etc! In other words, anything goes! Most handbooks include only a few very common examples and generally this large group is not considered easy to identify. With experience one can learn to recognise many of the genera but identifying to species level often requires specialised literature together with a scope. The technical term for the body of a cup fungus is an apothecium.

Chlorociboria aeruginascens (Green Elfcup) CVS

Scutellinia mirabilis (Eyelash with no English name) BW

Sarcoscypha austriaca (Scarlet Elfcup) NS

Lachnum niveum (Disco with no English name) BW

Helvella ephippium (Saddle with no English name) NF

Neodasyscypha cerina (Disco with no English name) RN

Otidea onotica (Hare's Ear) PC

Morchella elata (Black Morel) PC

Pyrenomycetes (flask fungi)

Much the same can be said of this group re variety, size and coverage in books, though they are entirely different in appearance from cup fungi. Many species start off brown and end up black, and tend to be hard and crusty. The asci in flask fungi - unlike those in cup fungi - are contained in roundish chambers (flasks) called perithecia (singular perithecium) which are positioned just under their crusty outer surface - the stroma (plural stromata). The stroma is finely pock-marked with minute sometimes slightly raised pimples (called ostioles) through which the asci eject the mature spores. These pimples are in fact the tips of the perithecia. Most flask fungi occur on fallen wood - either bare or still with bark attached, some grow in soil, on dung, on plant stems. As with all groups of fungi, anything goes thus hard and fast rules cannot be applied. The Latin term Pyrenomycete is derived from the Greek 'Pyrene' meaning the hard pit or stone of a fruit or nut.

Daldinia concentrica (King Alfred's Cakes) SJE

Leptosphaeria acuta (Nettle Rash) DJS Chaetosphaerella phaeostroma (Black Velvet) BW

Jackrogersella multiformis (Birch Woodwart) JW

Two further groups of ascomycetes should be mentioned here:

Ascomycete jelly fungi

There are several very common ascos which look extremely similar to the basidio jelly fungi, sharing their soft gelatinous texture and general appearance or jizz. Their evolution, though having taken a completely different route to that of the basidios over the millennia, has arrived in the present day with a fruitbody having much the same strategy for survival as their basidio lookalikes, ie having a protective gelatinous texture but producing their sexual spores in an ascus, their sexual spores in an ascus rather than a basidium.

Ascocoryne sarcoides (Purple Jellydisc) CW

Bulgaria inquinans (Bachelor's Buttons) PC

Neobulgaria pura (Beech Jellydisc) JW

Ascomycete club fungi

There are some uncommon grassland ascos which look extremely similar to some of the basidio clavarioids - club fungi, sharing their thin upright shape. Members of the genus Geoglossum (Earthtongue) and closely related genera - are mostly black but are not hard and crusty like the pyrenomycetes, a few are brown or dark green. The parasitic genus Cordyceps also produces club-shaped fungi, the commonest of which is bright orange and grows on submerged moth pupae or larvae. If one recognises the species when first found, it is then possible to carefully excavate and uncover the unfortunate very dead insect still attached at the base of the fungus. As with the asco jelly fungi above, the evolutionary journey of these asco club fungi has diverged but nevertheless ended up with fruitbodies of a very similar shape to the basidio clubs but with an entirely different spore producing mechanism.

Geoglossom fallax (Deceptive Earthtongue) SJE

Cordyceps militaris (Scarlet Caterpillar Club) GF

Trichoglossum hirsutum (Hairy Earthtongue) PC

HYPOGEOUS FUNGI (the Truffles - underground species)

Any summary of basidiomycetes and ascomycetes would not be complete without mention of the Truffles, some of which are basidiomycetes - akin to the puffballs - and some of which are ascomycetes. Truffles are by no means rare in the county and are generally much under-recorded in the UK owing to a lack of specialist knowledge of where and how to find them. For an introduction to this enigmatic group with a wealth of user-friendly information and guidance, see BFG member Jesper Launder's Document 10 entitled All about truffles.

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Document 4

All about GILLS and GILL ATTACHMENT

What are gills?

Gills form part of the cap of a mushroom. They are the thin vertical linear plates or ribs arranged radially on the underside like the spokes of a wheel, and their Latin name is lamellae (singular lamella). Their function is in no way connected to that of gills in a fish (though there is a resemblance in their shape). In all mushrooms this is where the basidia (spore-producing cells) are housed and from where spores are dispersed when mature.

Why are gills and gill attachment so important? Mushroom gills vary enormously in shape, colour, texture and number according to genus and species, providing us with very useful information which we can utilise when working out an identification. Naming any fungus is a complicated process and we need all the clues we can get. If you have an unknown mushroom the first hurdle to surmount is to place it within a genus. Sometimes this is quite easy from the various characters on display, but sometimes even experienced mycologists will be stumped. When this happens there are two basics to fall back on which give us a starting point to work from, the first being the gill attachment and the second being the spore print colour. The first is about to be explained below; the second is discussed in detail in our Document 5 entitled All about spore prints.

What is meant by gill attachment?

In a mushroom the way in which the gills meet the stem at their inner edge (ie the opposite end to the cap margin) is described as the gill attachment. There are five recognised methods of attachment which are most easily seen when a mushroom is split in half down through the cap centre and stem. This is best explained by the diagrams below which have been specially designed for this document and are unique in concept.

(Gill attachment diagrams created by S-J Ebdon - copyright 2024)

Click on any small image to view at full size

THE FIVE ATTACHMENT CATEGORIES

1. FREE The inner gill edge does not actually make contact with the stem but instead ascends to meet the underside of the cap flesh, leaving a free channel or gutter around the top of the stem. The fact that so few genera have free gills makes this particular form of attachment really useful because all other genera can then be eliminated. Genera having free gills are Agaricus, Amanita, Coprinus (& related genera), Lepiota (& related genera), Pluteus & Volvariella.

2. DECURRENT The gills gradually curve downwards to join the stem like a sliproad onto a motorway. They may descend in this way only quite briefly (ie subdecurrent) or very markedly (ie deeply decurrent). As with the attachment above, not many genera have decurrent gills though the situation is less clearcut here because some genera have members with other forms of attachment as well as decurrent. Nevertheless, knowing that your unknown mushroom has decurrent gills is going to give you a head start. The genera with at least some if not all members which fit here are Clitocybe (& related genera, though not all species), Clitopilus, a few members of Hygrocybe (& related genera), a few members of Lactarius are subdecurrent, Lepista, a few members of Mycena, Paxillus, Pleurotus (often deeply decurrent), Rickenella, a few members of Russula are subdecurrent.

 

3. ADNATE The gills join the stem making a clear connection across their full depth at right angles to the stem.

4. ADNEXED The gills join the stem but only just at the top, not across its full depth ie making just a small connection with the very top of the stem.

NB The difference between adnexed and adnate is slight, not always very clear but usually not that critical; both forms are included side by side here for that reason. It is usually sufficient to describe this attachment as adnate. This is by far the most common form and is found in many genera including Conocybe, Cortinarius, Gymnopus (and related genera), Hebeloma, some Hygrocybe species (and related genera), Inocybe, Laccaria (though occasionally also subdecurrent), Lactarius, Marasmius (see also below), Melanoleuca, Mycena, Pholiota, Psathyrella, Russula.

5. SINUATE (also sometimes called EMARGINATE) The inner edge of the gill appears to start sloping upwards towards the underside of the cap (as if going to be free or adnate) but then takes a downward turn to meet the stem, forming a notch. Not many genera have sinuate gills: Melanoleuca, Megacollybia, Tricholoma.

A collarium

Marasmius rotula
(Collared Parachute)
showing the collarium PC

Occasionally the gills come to an abupt end meeting a collarium, reminiscent of the spokes of a wagon wheel. This is rare but happens to occur in one of our common species, Marasmius rotula (Collared Parachute). This is a tiny white mycenoid mushroom frequently growing in troupes on deciduous sticks and woody litter, the gills being notably widely spaced as well. There is also a very similar though much rarer and even smaller sister species, M. bulliardii (no English name as yet) also found in troupes but notably only dead deciduous leaves. The underside of the cap is identical but the upper surface is cream rather than white and has a dark central dot. We find it fairly often on Beech leaves in the Chilterns.

Mushrooms with pores or spines

The method of attachment to the stem in mushrooms with pores or spines is generally much less critical and only mentioned if clearly either free or decurrent when it can be significant.

Suillus bovinus (Bovine Bolete) PC

Suillus cavipes (Hollow Bolete) PC

Hydnum repandum (Wood Hedgehog) NF

Brackets and polypores

Some brackets and polypores can have decurrent pores and if so this is significant also.

Abortiporus biennis (Blushing Rosette) PC

Lentinus brumalis (Winter Polypore) MB

Picipes badius (Bay Polypore) PC

A FEW OTHER NOTABLE GILL CHARACTERS

As mentioned at the beginning, mushroom gills can vary enormously - not just in their form of attachment; you will often notice in the field that one of the first things a mycologist does when finding a mushroom is to turn it over to examine the underside (the next thing being to put it to his nose for a sniff!).

Gill colour

Colour is a significant character but is not as obvious or easy to assess as one might think! Consider the three images below:

Agaricus augustus (The Prince) JLa

Agaricus crocodilinus (Macro Mushroom) PC

Agaricus moelleri (Inky Mushroom) SP

Novices to mycology would be forgiven for assuming that the three photos above illustrate examples of three separate genera owing to their different gill colour. Not so! In an immature Agaricus the gills are pale pink (sometimes almost white); as the cap expands the gills gradually darken to pinkish brown as they become coloured by the dark brown maturing spores which eventually turn the gills almost black. This is not at all unusual and occurs in all genera with dark spores, so one needs to be aware that gill colour seen in young specimens can be misleadingly different from mature specimens. However, in mushrooms which have pale spores the gill colour will remain more or less unchanged at maturity. This is one of the reasons why taking a spore print can play such a critical role in identification. (For more information about this go to Document 5 entitled All about spore prints.)

In genus Agaricus there is little variation in immature gill colour according to species, all having more or less pink gills at that stage. This is far from the case in some other genera, however. In genus Cortinarius, for instance, there can be a dramatic variety in immature gill colour according to species, this being one of the reasons why one ideally needs a young specimen to have any chance of making an identification. Once mature, however, the distinctly rusty coloured spores found in Cortinarius will often have completely transformed the original gill colour, rendering the gills typically rusty thus providing another useful clue to the genus. See examples below.

		Far left: Cortinarius croceus (Saffron Webcap) PC Near left: Cortinarius semisanguineus (Surprise Webcap) RN
		Far left: Cortinarius purpurascens (Bruising Webcap) NS Near left: Cortinarius torvus (Stocking Webcap) PC - this photo showing the mature rusty gill colour typical of the genus.

The genus Russula (Brittlegill) is unusual in that the spore colour itself varies according to species - this being the exception rather than the rule in mushrooms. In Russula, as with Cortinarius, the gill colour observed when immature may well change in maturity. This genus is discussed further in Document 5 entitled All about spore prints.

Tips

• When judging gill colour one should always note whether a mushroom is immature or fully expanded - ie mature. Looking around for further examples nearby can be useful to assess this. If you have an immature singleton, keeping it for 24 hours can be informative as it may well mature enough in that time to show whether the gills are changing colour or not. Alternatively set it up for a spore print!

• There are several genera of small mushrooms which can superficially be confused with Mycena (Bonnet) and as such are sometimes described as 'mycenoid'. Two of these, Conocybe (Conecap) and Galerina (Bell) can quickly be separated from Mycena by their obvious pale ochre brown gills. Genus Mycena has white gills which at most turn slightly pinkish or grey but never ochre brown.

Gill spacing, with lamellules, with forking and with cross ridges

Gills can be either crowded (as seen in the Agaricus examples above) or widely spaced (as in Marasmius rotula above) or anything in between. Furthermore quite often one sees 'part gills' interspersed between each complete gill (ie one that reaches from stem to cap margin) - these are the lamellules and can be seen in the Cortinarius examples above.

Cantharellula umbonata
(Humpback Mushroom) PC

In some species of mushroom the gills can divide either near the stem or near the margin, when described as forked. This is most clearly seen in the unusual Cantharellula umbonata (Humpback Mushroom) where the gills not only fork several times but are also somewhat thick - rather like the folds seen in the genus Cantharellus (Chanterelle).

Mycena galericulata (Common Bonnet) has unusual and distinctive cross ridges running between the gills and adjoined the underside of the cap (often described as anastomosing). This particular feature is shown in detail in the Species Profiles at the end of Document 7 entitled The 40 commonest woodland fungi in Bucks under the profile of Mycena galericulata.

Gill edges

Gills can have lower edges which are either concolorous (the norm, ie matching the rest of the gill in colour) or contrasting. Quite often the gill edges are white, but in some mushrooms they are significantly darker and a distinct colour. Several species of Mycena have coloured gill edges though one often needs a x10 handlens to see this in detail. One or two species of Pluteus (Shield) have dark brown edges. See examples below.

Mycena pelianthina (Blackedge Bonnet) PC

Mycena rubromarginata (Rededge Bonnet) GF

Pluteus umbrosus (Velvet Shield) PC

Gills with jagged edges

The gills of most species of mushroom have smooth edges but certain species have gills with uneven or jagged edges though one often needs a x10 handlens to see this in detail.

Russula fragilis (Fragile Brittlegill) PC

Lentinellus ursinus (Bear Cockleshell) RN

Gills with blunt edges

The genus Cantharellus (Chanterelle) does not have sharp edged gills like most mushrooms and instead has (deeply) decurrent blunt 'folds', often also with wrinkles and cross ridges. In the closely related genus Craterellus (Horn of Plenty) the cap underside is further reduced and can be entirely smooth.

Cantharellus cibarius (Chanterelle) BW

Craterellus tubaeformis (Trumpet Chanterelle) SJE

Craterellus cornucopioides (Horn of Plenty) BW

Tip

Cantharellus cibarius (left) together with
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca (right) PC

To the right is an image showing Cantharellus cibarius (Chanterelle) alongside Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca (False Chanterelle), two species which often seem to be confused in the field. Observing the blunt folds of Cantharellus in contrast to the sharp edged gills of Hygrophoropsis should eliminate any confusion.

Marasmius epiphyllus
(Leaf Parachute) PC

Reduced gills

It is worth being aware that there are a few tiny species in genera Marasmius and Hemimycena in which the gill can be greatly reduced in both size and number.

We've here tried to give you a taster of the wide range of gill characters to look out for, all of which can be important pointers to the identity of a species. A x10 handlens is recommended and without one the detail particularly in smaller mushrooms may well be hard to see when in the field.

BW = Barry Webb FRPS; GF = Gill Ferguson; JLa = Jesper Launder; MB = Margaret Bolton; NF = Neil Fletcher; NS = Nick Standing; PC = Penny Cullington; RN = Russell Ness; SJE = Sarah-Jayne Ebdon; SP = Stephen Plummer

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Document 5

All about SPORE PRINTS

WHY DO SPORE PRINTS MATTER?
Unlike the seeds of plants, fungal spores are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Nerverless they can be used in various ways to provide us with information not only about differences between genera but also between species within a genus. The variety of shape, size, colour and surface ornamentation found in fungal spores is endless. All these features except colour necessitate the use of a microscope to assess, but colour (when en masse) can best be assessed by taking a spore print. Here we're going to focus on gilled mushrooms but the same principals and technique apply to any type of fungus.

• Anyone can take a spore print. All you need is a fresh mushroom and a bit of patience!

• Though cap, gills and stem colours may vary considerably within one species, spore colour is the one reliable and constant feature, providing us with a definitive piece of information which can be of enormous value.

• In general all species within one genus have similar coloured spores. There may be a little variation but by and large, knowing the spore colour can allow one to safely eliminate all those genera which have different coloured spores.

• Genus Russula (Brittlegill) is the exception - there's always one! This is a huge and important mycorrhizal genus with about 750 species wordwide, about 160 of which we have in the UK. Their spore colour ranges from pure white through shades of cream to ochre and even deep orange according to species. Each species will be true to its own particular spore colour so knowing that colour by taking a spore print becomes crucial, instantly allowing one to discount all those species with different coloured spores.

Russula spore colour range

 

A selection of MUSHROOM GENERA and their SPORE COLOUR (excluding Russula!)
WHITE to PALE CREAM:	Amanita, Clitocybe, Gymnopus (& related genera), Hygrocybe (& related genera), Laccaria, Lepiota (& related genera), Lepista, Marasmius, Mycena (& related genera), Pleurotus, Tricholoma
CREAM to BUFF:	Lactarius
RED or GREEN:	Melanophyllum
PINK-BROWN:	Clitopilus, Entoloma, Pluteus, Volvariella
RUST or OCHRE BROWN:	Agrocybe, Conocybe, Cortinarius, Galerina, Gymnopilus, Pholiota
CLAY-BROWN:	Hebeloma, Naucoria
OLIVE-BROWN:	Boletus (& related genera), Paxillus
DULL CIGAR-BROWN:	Inocybe (& related genera)
DARK BROWN:	Agaricus, Psathyrella (& related genera)
PURPLE-BROWN to PURPLISH-BLACK:	Deconica, Hypholoma, Psilocybe, Stropharia
BLACK:	Coprinus (& related genera), Lacrymaria, Panaeolus (& related genera)

white to pale cream	pink-pale brown	rust or ochre-brown
dull cigar-brown	darkbrown	purple-brown to black

How to take a SPORE PRINT from a MUSHROOM

Method 1: Cut off the cap at the stem apex (top) and place it gills-down on a piece of paper / card / ceramic tile. Use white for gills which are already showing some shade of brown or darker, dark for gills which are white or cream, to allow the final print to show up against the background. A microscope slide or piece of flat glass is even better. Cover with a suitable container to keep out draughts (this is vital), place in a cool spot and leave for several hours and preferably overnight. No peeking! In the morning with luck you should have a beautiful mirror image of the radial gill shape left by the spore deposit; furthermore you'll know for sure what colour the spores are.

Method 2: This is a better system if you want to leave your mushroom in one piece with the stem still attached. You'll need two plastic beakers or similar and tall enough to accommodate the stem length, two microscope slides and / or a piece of card, ideally plastic-coated which can be wiped clean and re-used and large enough to overlap the top of the beakers. Cut a slot in one side of the card wide enough to accommodate the stem (LH photo below). Thread your mushroom onto the centre of the card (plastic side up), gills resting on the card and stem pointing downwards. Now place mushroom and card on one of the beakers and if using slides push these carefully between the cap and the card (central photo below). Now cover with the second beaker to keep out draughts (RH photo below). As for method 1, leave for several hours or overnight. Ideally have to hand a selection of cards - different colours and with different sized slots.

Tips

• For both methods, before covering your cap place a small piece of damp kitchen paper directly onto the cap to encourage the dropping of spores especially in warm dry conditions. Top up the dampness if it dries out during the process. Even so, sometimes this trick will fail to produce results.

• If it doesn't work, do not despair! Fungi are nothing if unpredictable and sometimes no spores will be dropped, even when left overnight.

• NB: MUSHROOMS WILL RARELY DROP SPORES IF THEY'VE BEEN CHILLED IN THE FRIDGE FIRST!!

• It's good practice to set up a spore print as soon as you can after collection while your mushroom is still fresh. If you have a collection of one species, choose a fully expanded specimen for your print, placing the others in a pot with a lid in the fridge till you're ready to work on them.

• Spore print colour. To assess the colour accurately you need a thick deposit. Let the print dry off naturally after removing the cap, then with tweezers carefully remove any extraneous debris (or maggots!) which may have dropped onto your print. Now with a knife or razor blade scrape the spore mass into a concentrated pile. You now have their true colour which often appears a bit darker once scraped together like this than before that action.

ALTERNATIVE ways to assess SPORE COLOUR

The downside of taking a spore print is having to wait for the result. Often when you get home you want to set to work straight away to find out what you've found. There is no substitute for a proper spore print - this is the only way to be really sure of spore colour, but there are two ways to make an educated guess without having to wait.

1. Gill colour - first a word of warning

There is an obvious co-relation between mature gill colour and spore colour, but having said that the assumption cannot be made that if the gills are white / cream / brown etc, then the spores are also. This is not necessarily the case! As a mushroom is developing with cap gradually expanding and gills gradually exposed, the spores are slowly ripening. Only when fully mature do spores obtain their true colour, size and characteristics. Not until that stage is reached do they start to colour the gills correspondingly before release and distribution. Many mushrooms with really dark spores will have young gills which are white or nearly so and which will only gradually darken over time to finally match their spore colour - some never do so with gills remaining obstinately paler than their spore print even when mature!

Tip

• When you find a mushroom, try to assess its stage of maturity. Look around for more specimens nearby which may help with this. The largest most fully expanded flattest cap will be the most mature, so ideally you want to compare the gill colour of a mature cap with that of an immature cap to see if it's either darker or unchanging. If unchanging then this points to spore colour being similarly pale. Conversely if the mature gills are darker this points to spore colour being similarly dark. However, this should not be taken as conclusive but does at least give a good indication of spore colour.

2. Spores dropped naturally onto the stem apex

When you find a mushroom, with your x10 handlens check the top of the stem or the surface of the ring if it has one. If mature enough, quite often some spores will have started to drop and some may well have attached to the upper stem or the ring immediately underneath, especially if its surface is roughened, hairy or sticky. If the dropped spores are dark and the stem pale, the spores will show up as tiny dark dots or spots; none seen could indicate either that they're concolorous or that none have dropped yet!

If you find a singleton immature mushroom with no convenient fully developed neighbour, there is little you can do but guess at its spore colour which may or may not be the same as its gill colour. If you don't recognise the genus from any other clues, then a spore print taken overnight is what you need.

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Document 6

IN THE FIELD - WHAT TO LOOK FOR

This is our attempt to document the essential features any budding mycologist should be observing when they find a fungus. Below are some of the myriad of different characteristics we might need to take into consideration in order to identify or even to describe a fungus to a fellow enthusiast in the hope of some forthcoming help. Size and colour are the two most obvious features but there is so so much more to it than that! This is about good detective work, developing the skills to look beyond the obvious and homing in on the critical characters. Two LBMs (little brown mushrooms) might appear superficially the same but we need to learn to look for the minutiae which could separate them and why these details are significant.

When showing a fungus to another mycologist you're quite likely to be bombarded with a catalogue of questions which you may or may not be able to answer: "Was it on wood / on soil / in litter? What tree was it growing under? Was it growing singly or in a group / a loose cluster / a tight cluster? What does it smell like?" etc. etc. Sometimes they'll be able to offer up a name after a quick glance, but more often than not the many possibilities need to be weighed up and the elimination process begins, involving a range of relevant characters perhaps not readily obvious to the beginner. Your answer to each question will help to build up the bigger picture in order to whittle down those possibilities.

Because there are so many species of fungi - over 15,000 known in the UK, roughly 3000 of which are mushrooms - the challenge of naming a species is far greater than naming, say, a bird or a butterfly. This is why knowing what details to look for when you find a fungus, which features might be significant, are skills well worth developing. We've focused here on mushrooms - the group which usually first attracts someone to start taking an interest in fungi. The list of features below is fairly comprehensive but not exhaustive, and only a relatively small number are likely to be relevant to any one specimen or collection. Our purpose is to draw your attention to what might be significant and to look / feel / smell carefully at the time of collection. Some characters are important pointers to genus, others to individual species once the genus has been established, and with experience comes awareness of which characters are likely to be particularly relevant depending on the mushroom. This is a continuous learning curve which starts with being alert to the possibilities.

MUSHROOMS

CAP:	colour: basic description; evenly spread or patchy; in radial zones; two-tone or a combination of colours; paler or darker at centre or margin. size: diameter in cm (or mm if tiny), also height if relevant, ie when immature and not yet expanded. shape: eg flat, domed, conical, campanulate; margin upturned, downturned or inrolled; centre with acute or obtuse umbo or sunken. texture: smooth, shiny or dull; glutinous, slimy, sticky or dry; felted, fibrous or roughened; with large, small flat or raised scales; with flecks of veil remnants at centre, margin or elsewhere; with litter or debris adhering. markings: eg spotting, droplet-like dots, zones of texture, radial or concentric cracks, veins or wrinkles, entirely or partly fluted, translucent. cuticle: peels from margin entirely to centre, halfway or not at all; thick, rubbery and flexible or thin and brittle; overhangs at margin. flesh: colour; changing on exposure to air - if so what colour, also quickly or slowly; colour if different just under the cuticle; firm or soft, thick or thin.
GILLS:	colour: description when mature; if paler when immature (if known); edges concolorous, white or another colour; when mature edges spotted with black or staining another colour. gill attachment: free, decurrent, adnate(-exed) or sinuate (fully explained in Document 4 entitled All about Gills and gill attachment). shape: crowded or widely spaced; deep, shallow or reduced to veins; straight, concave or ventricose (swollen in the middle); interspersed with lamellules (part gills); forking; with cross ridges in between. texture: brittle or flexible, sticky if pressed, gelatinous. edges: sharp or blunt; thick or thin; straight, wavy, irregular, other. or latex / moisture droplets: absent or present especially when gills cut or damaged; colour if present.
PORES:	colour: description, unchanging or changing quickly or slowly if pressed, if so how. size & shape: large or small, round or irregular and angular. or texture: firm or soft and spongy. tubes: (just under the pores): concolorous or other; when pulled apart splitting or remaining whole.
SPINES:	colour, decurrent or not; shallow or deep.
STEM:	position under cap: central, eccentric or absent. colour: basic description, evenly spread, patchy or streaky; paler or darker towards apex or base; two-tone. size: length & width in cm (mm). shape: cylindrical, straight or bent, tapering upwards or downwards. base: swollen or with a distinct bulb or platform or not; bulb if present round or ridged; enclosed in a volva or not, volva if present solid and firm, flimsy and easily torn, other; attached to substrate with a thick root, with thick or thin mycelial strands or fine fuzzy fibrils, white or another colour. texture: flexible or brittle; smooth and shiny; dry, moist or slimy; fibrillose, shaggy, finely hairy or pruinose (appearing finely velvety) entirely, only at top or in top half. latex: present or absent if stem cut or damaged, if present colour or translucent. markings: ring, ring zone or cortina present or absent - if present give details; with a mesh or network pattern - if present give colour; with scales / floccules / pock marks - if present give colour; other. flesh: colour; changing on exposure to air - if so what colour, also quickly or slowly; stuffed (ie solid), hollow or chambered.
SMELL:	strong, weak or absent (see also Note 1 below).
HABIT:	single, gregarious, loosely clustered or in a tight clump - if so with stem bases adjoining or not.
SUBSTRATE:	on wood: eg trunk (standing live or dead or fallen), branch (attached live or dead or fallen), stump, log pile, wood chip pile (see also Note 2 below). on some other plant: details of plant and position on plant. other: eg in bare or grassy soil, moss , leaf or needle litter, woody debris, specific such as beechnut, other.
TREE ASSOCIATION:	if in soil or litter under trees, identify trees nearby starting with the nearest (see also Note 2 below).
HABITAT:	eg woodland (deciduous, conifer or mixed), unimproved grassland, heathland, parkland, lawn, urban, other.
LOCATION & DATE:	relevant for all collections other than those made when out with BFG, with site name and grid ref.

Note 1: Smells in fungi
The range of smells found in fungi is mind-blowing! Smells often seem to have components reminiscent of several different items familiar to us, making it hard to 'put your finger on'. Smell is a very individual sense in humans and can often give rise to varying opinions, even arguments, as to which is the closest or best comparison. (This applies to our sense of colour also, for instance "Is it turquoise, blue or green?".) Furthermore we are vulnerable to suggestion and once a certain smell has been suggested it's amazing how often people will suddenly 'get it'!

Tips

• To smell a mushroom turn it upside-down and put the gills just under your nose. It often helps to bruise or crush the gills a bit first, also a smell often develops given a little time after collection. Another trick is to concentrate any smell by containing your specimen in a small airtight pot for a few minutes, then open the lid and quickly put your nose close.

• Ask a friend: Not everyone has an acute sense of smell so getting a second or third opinion is a good idea (but resist suggesting first what you think the smell might or even should be!)

Below is a small selection of smells which occur in certain species of mushroom and which can provide very useful clues to their identity. A smell can often be used to clinch the separation of two similar species.

Fruit:	sweet and fruity, stewed apple, coconut, apricots, pear drops, mandarins, almonds or marzipan.
Plants:	roses, geranium leaves, lupins, violets, grass.
Veg:	potato peelings, overcooked cabbage, garlic, radish, crushed tomato leaves, beetroot, fresh peas, aniseed, cucumber.
Food:	honey, burnt sugar, camembert cheese, rancid flour, yeast, rotting meat, cod liver oil, cooked crab, fish, bubble gum, boiled sweets, curry powder, cocoa.
Chemical:	iodine, bleach, iodoform, coal gas tar, amyl acetate (nail varnish remover), naphthalene (moth balls), fly spray.
Other:	Russian leather, horse urine or stables, mouse droppings, semen (spermatic), earthy, rubber, drains, old socks, rotting meat.

Note 2: Wood and trees
Identifying the substrate wood can be very important, even diagnostic, particularly if your species is mycorrhizal and therefore possibly host specific. Ideally the tree species from which the wood came, or under which your fungus was found, should be named, or failing that identified as deciduous or coniferous. Often this is not possible for a range of reasons. Not all of us know our tree species that well; fallen wood may be decorticated (ie barkless) or disintegrating beyond recognition; a log pile may contain a mixture of tree species; a wood chip pile may be of local wood or imported; a live tree may not be in leaf at the time or the leaves are out of reach; etc. Bark patterns, if you are familiar with them, can help considerably with both live and dead or fallen wood, but if you don't know and can't tell it's better to own up and say so!

Tip

• It's good practice to place a leaf (needle, cone, piece of bark) from the substrate tree in with your mushroom as a reminder or prompt - even if you don't recognise it someone else might. This tip works well for mycorrhizal mushrooms growing in soil under trees, but bear in mind that (a) any nearby trees may be the host - not just the nearest (roots can spread much further than one might imagine), also (b) any detached leaf nearby may easily have blown there and bear no relation to your mushroom.

SOME ADVICE ON HOW TO COLLECT
It will already be apparent from the above list that every visible part of a mushroom can be contributory to its identification. A couple of examples: With the genera Amanita and Inocybe if the stem base is missing you've lost one of the vital clues, possibly rendering identification well-nigh impossible. (If your fungus is poisonous - as at least some members of both Amanita and Inocybe are - this could potentially be dangerous.) With genus Cortinarius an immature specimen still with cortina in place is nearly always essential for identification - a mature specimen alone (even if carefully collected) is not enough. In general singleton collections can often be tricky and it is preferable to collect several examples at different stages of development if possible. Not only does this make recognition far easier but with small species if microscopic examination is needed later more material is likely to be needed. Furthermore if your find turns out to be interesting or rare then samples will possibly require drying, ready for DNA extraction followed by placing in a fungarium as a voucher and for further research. (For more information on drying fungi on our website, go to Menu: Microscopy: Penny's advice on drying fungi.)

General tips on collecting:

1.	Ideally have a few pots with lids handy, varying in size.
2.	Avoid mixing different species together in one container. Fungi will continue dropping spores once collected and if mixed can cause confusing contamination.
3.	If possible try to keep a mushroom with gills and stem pointing downwards to avoid any attached soil at its base contaminating the upper parts of the fruitbody.
4.	A small implement of some sort helps with collecting the whole fruitbody including the stem base intact. Even a car key or a stick can be used if nothing else!
5.	On finding a singleton, have a good look around for another nearby which might show a different stage of development.
6.	The smaller the species, the more likely it is that several fruitbodies will be needed.
7.	If you're into photography, take a photo before collection showing as many features as possible. Maybe pick one and place it upside-down beside another to show gills and stem as well as cap. Ideally aim for an informative rather than artistic photo and setting fungi up to achieve this takes practice. Good examples of this skill can be seen in the final section of Document 7, also throughout our Members' Finds website page.
8.	Test for a smell straight away, then again a few minutes later once your find has been contained for a bit.
9.	If you suspect you have a Lactarius, test for latex in the gills to confirm this, then keep an eye on the damaged gills / latex for the next few minutes to see if any colour change develops.
10.	If you suspect you have a Mycena, test for latex by snapping a stem and noting the latex colour if present (it might be colourless, white, orange or dark claret!).
11.	If you have a bolete and are on your own, cut it lengthways through cap and stem and watch for any colour change in the flesh. This might be instant (and startling!) or slow (anything up to 30 mins). If out with BFG this process can wait till you show your bolete to the leader.
12.	If you come across a cluster of mushrooms, select one or two from the edge or underside, leaving the main group undamaged for others to enjoy.

Other types of fungi
Though the focus above is on mushrooms, the same basic principals of careful observance apply to all groups of fungi.

Further reading and help with recognising the different mushroom genera
We're often asked how to place a mushroom in the correct genus. After all, this is the first step towards naming a species. To help with this particular issue we've devised a table designed to complement the information above. We recommend you explore Document 8 entitled Basic field characters of some common mushroom genera.

Another innovative identification aid we'd like to bring to your attention is Document 7 entitled The 40 commonest woodland fungi in Bucks. This comprises an explanatory introduction and species list, user-friendly keys to identify the 40 species which include mushrooms, brackets, puffballs, jelly fungi and ascos, followed by descriptions and photos of the species. We suspect this set of keys is unique and would value any feedback especially re any difficulties you might encounter, in order to improve it further.

Glossary of mycological terms
For help with the many strange and mysterious terms you may encounter, go to Document 9 entitled Glossary of basic mycological terms which explains the meaning of all terms used in this series of documents plus many more in common usage. If you come across a term we've missed, please let us know!

A prompt list
Finally here's a brief resume of the 10 main features to check and make a note of in the field:

   Cap
      Gills (pores, spines)
         Stem
            Smell
               Habit
                  Substrate
                     Tree (association)
                        Habitat
                           Location
                              Date

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Document 7

The 40 COMMONEST WOODLAND FUNGI in BUCKS

with keys and species profiles

Introduction

To give beginners and less experienced members a head start in getting to grips with learning how to recognise a few species 'in the field', we've formulated a list of the 40 commonest species to be found in our woodlands in autumn, followed by a simple identification key. This is further followed by the species profile (ie a photo and full description) for all the species, each of which can be accessed by clicking on the fungus name either from the list below or from the key itself. The species included are a complete mix of types and are, needless to say, the merest drop in the ocean of what you may come across. Our aim here is to give you a foothold on the first rung of the ladder; by learning to recognise these few you'll be well-armed to progress to further challenges.

A dichotomous key

The tried and tested scientific way to work out the specific identity of any organism is with the aid of an artificial key which, if you like, symbolically unlocks the door and leads you through a maze of passages to your answer. There are various kinds of keys but the one most commonly and traditionally used in mycology is the dichotomous key - dichotomy meaning a division into two. This type of key consists of a series of opposing statements called couplets. Similar to a treasure hunt where one clue leads you on to the next, depending on which of the two opposing statements you select in each couplet you then progress to the next as directed, and so on and so on until you arrive at a name. Statements are not full species descriptions but include only the essential differences needed for a choice to be made, with the most significant features placed first. Having followed through the maze and arrived at a name, it is always advisable to check a full description for that species elsewhere to ensure you've reached a likely conclusion.

This may all sound dauntingly complicated - and admittedly some dichotomous keys certainly are so - but we've specially devised this key with simplicity in mind and as an introduction to how a key of this sort works. We very much hope you'll give it a go and enjoy the experience once you get the hang of it.

THE SPECIES LIST

Amanita citrina (False Deathcap) Amanita rubescens (Blusher) Ascocoryne sarcoides (Purple Jellydisc) Auricularia auricula-judae (Jelly Ear) Coprinellus micaceus (Glistening Inkcap) Daedaleopsis confragosa (Blushing Bracket) Fomitopsis betulina (Birch Polypore) Ganoderma applanatum (Artist's Bracket) Ganoderma australe (Southern Bracket) Gymnopus dryophilus (Russet Toughshank) Hypholoma fasciculare (Sulphur Tuft) Hypoxylon fragiforme (Beech Woodwart) Hypoxylon fuscum (Hazel Woodwart) Imleria badia (Bay Bolete) Laccaria amethystina (Amethyst Deceiver) Laccaria laccata (Deceiver) Lactarius quietus (Oakbug Milkcap) Lactarius subdulcis (Mild Milkcap) Lycoperdon perlatum (Common Puffball) Lycoperdon pyriforme (Stump Puffball)

Mucidula mucida (Porcelain Fungus) Mycena crocata (Saffrondrop Bonnet) Mycena galericulata (Common Bonnet) Mycena rosea (Rosy Bonnet) Neobulgaria pura (Beech Jellydisc) Phallus impudicus (Stinkhorn) Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom) Pluteus cervinus (Deer Shield) Rhodocollybia butyracea (Butter Cap) Russula nigricans (Blackening Brittlegill) Russula nobilis (Beechwood Sickener) Russula ochroleuca (Ochre Brittlegill) Scleroderma citrinum (Common Earthball) Stereum hirsutum (Hairy Curtain Crust) Trametes versicolor (Turkeytail) Xerocomellus chrysenteron (Red Cracking Bolete) Xerocomellus cisalpinus (Bluefoot Bolete) Xerocomellus pruinatus (Matt Bolete) Xylaria hypoxylon (Candlesnuff) Xylaria polymorpha (Dead Man's Fingers)

Click on any of the above Latin names to access their species profile

Some additional comments and words of caution

• There are two places in the keys where you'll notice the following statement: (NB: Further separation between species only possible with advanced ID skills). This has been necessary because though the species involved are common and quite easy to identify as a pair / trio, they are not at all easy to separate from each other even with much experience. It is safest, therefore, to be satisfied with "OK, it must be either / or" and leave it at that.

• Please bear in mind that it is often tempting to make your fungus 'fit' with one named in the key when of course there exist many other possibilities. An example: Russula nobilis is the only red Brittlegill in our key (because it is so common) but there are many different red-capped Brittlegills which occur in the county.

• If out with BFG and armed with the list of 40 species included in the key, on finding a fungus ask the leader or someone knowledgeable if your find is included in the list but not for its name! Then later at home you can try and 'key it out' for yourself in the knowledge that you should arrive at a satisfactory name, finally checking that it matches the species profile. (Click here for a printable pdf of the species list.)

• It might be best to treat any identification made using the key as probable or likely rather than conclusive, pointing you in the right direction. A second opinion is always a good idea - one of the reasons why coming on our walks is still the best way to learn.

• If there are places within the key which you find confusing or 'don't work', do please let us know (via 'Contact us' on the BFG website). This key is brand new (Summer 2024) and to a certain degree experimental; any feedback will be useful and will help us make improvements.

KEYS to our 40 COMMONEST WOODLAND FUNGI

Click on any Latin names to access their species profiles

Click to see a downloadable pdf version of keys

	ENTRY KEY
1.	A mushroom having a cap - with either gills or pores - and a stem 2
1*.	Some other type of fungus, ie not as above 4
2.	Growing on wood - either living or dead, standing or fallen, or woody debris KEY A
2*.	Growing in soil or woodland litter, not on wood 3
3.	A mushroom having a cap with gills, not pores KEY B
3*.	A mushroom having a cap with pores, not gills KEY C
4.	A puffball or similar, ie squat, roundish or pear-shaped with no gills or pores and entirely enclosed within a skin which may be textured, growing either on wood or in soil / litter KEY D
4*.	Some other type of fungus, ie not as above 5
5.	A white phallic-shaped fungus with dark olive brown top and foul smell Phallus impudicus (Stinkhorn)
5*.	Some other type of fungus, ie not as above 6
6.	A bracket type, on wood, no stem or gills, underside either with pores or smooth KEY E
6*.	Some other type of fungus, ie not as above 7
7.	A fungus having soft gelatinous flesh, either some shade of beige to brown or pink to reddish purple. On deciduous wood KEY F
7*.	A fungus having hard dry or crusty texture, dark brown to black, on wood KEY G
	KEY A (Mushrooms growing on wood or woody debris)
1.	Stem short and eccentric (ie not central), gills decurrent (ie curving down the stem); cap shell-like, colour variable: some shade of grey; on fallen trunks and branches (commonly Beech) Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom)
1*.	Stem central, gills not decurrent, cap not shell-like; other features may or may not be as above 2
2.	Fruitbody slimy, white; cap up to 6 cm across when fully expanded; gills widely space; stem with a ring; only on Beech, often high up in the canopy, also on fallen branches Mucidula mucida (Porcelain Fungus)
2*.	Fruitbody dry, some other colour; cap size as above or smaller; gills not widely spaced; stem at most may have a faint ring-zone; on deciduous or coniferous fallen branches or woody debris 3
3.	Gills notably crowded and ventricose (centrally swollen), immature gills almost white but pink when mature, sporeprint pink, gill attachment free; cap brown, usually darker in the centre and smooth; no ring zone; on fallen deciduous wood Pluteus cervinus (Deer Shield)
3*.	Gills not as above, either remaining white when mature (sporeprint white) or yellow or beige becoming darker then black (sporeprint black) when mature; other features may or may not be as above 4
4.	Gills (and sporeprint) white; cap thin-fleshed and campanulate (bell-shaped), some shade of brown; stem slender, no ring; on deciduous fallen wood genus Mycena (the Bonnets): 5
4*.	Gills either yellow or beige when young, becoming blackish when mature (sporeprint black); caps may be yellow or brown; often caespitose (growing in clusters), on stumps, fallen wood, submerged roots, deciduous or coniferous 6
5.	Stem distinctly orange-red, if broken exuding bright orange droplets of latex, this colour often 'bleeding' into gills and / or cap when damaged; cap to 2.5cm across at most; predominantly on fallen Beech Mycena crocata (Saffrondrop Bonnet)
5*.	Stem greyish-brown, latex of any colour absent; cap can be 2.5cm across but sometimes up to 6cm; common on any fallen deciduous wood or stumps, rooting firmly into the wood, either singly or in loose clusters Mycena galericulata (Common Bonnet)
6.	Gills at first beige but soon darker and eventually black, crowded; cap ochre-tan to brown, finely furrowed, campanulate (bell-shaped), surface dusted with fine white powdery granules; stem white - no ring zone; often forming loose groups / clusters; only on deciduous wood Coprinellus micaceus (Glistening Inkcap)
6*.	Gills at first sulphur yellow but soon darker and eventually black; cap sulphur yellow with orange centre, surface smooth, domed then flat, lacking white granules; stem yellow above with faint black ring zone, darker below; forming tight clusters with stem bases often almost adjoining; on both deciduous and coniferous wood Hypholoma fasciculare (Sulphur Tuft)
	KEY B (Mushrooms having gills - not pores, growing in soil or woodland litter)
1.	Cap bright rose pink; gills concolorous or paler; stem hollow, white - sometimes pale pink, tapering towards the top; smell sharp, of radish; in deciduous litter, especially under Beech Mycena rosea (Rosy Bonnet)
1*.	Cap some other colour or if dull pink then not having the above combination of features 2
2.	Gills persistently white /cream / beige-buff / pink / amethyst, never darkening to black in age; sporeprint white 3
2*.	Gills soon becoming darker, eventually black; sporeprint black; in woody litter adjacent to fallen wood or possibly attached to submerged roots go to Key A couplet 6
3.	Gills white to palest cream 4
3*.	Gills pink / amethyst or beige-buff (if the latter then with latex apparent in damaged gills) 10
4.	Stem rubbery and pliable; fruitbody small to medium, cap some shade of brown 5
4*.	Stem firm and inflexible; fruitbody medium to large, cap some other colour 6
5.	Cap soon flattish, feels dry, evenly russet to orange brown though can fade to buff; stem paler than cap, cylindrical; tending to appear in early autumn Gymnopus dryophilus (Russet Toughshank)
5*.	Cap rounded with slightly raised central bump, feels greasy, deep reddish to rich purplish brown though soon fading often unevenly leaving different zones of pale to dark, ie very variable; stem hollow with clavate base, tapering upwards, concolorous with cap but often with purplish appearance; tending to appear in late autumn Rhodocollybia butyracea (Butter Cap)
6.	Fruitbody large, cap to 7cm across or more; stem sturdy with a distinct ring and swollen base; cap dotted with white flecks which can be rubbed off; gill attachment free (see Doc 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment) genus Amanita: 7
6*.	Fruitbody as above or smaller; stem sturdy or not but lacking a ring or a swollen base; cap lacking white flecks; gill attachment not free but adnate (see Doc 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment) genus Russula: 8
7.	Cap lemon yellow to pale yellow (occasionally white); stem white, with ring when young though sometimes lost later, base with distinct rim / gutter; smell distinctly of potato peelings; flesh where damaged not discolouring; under various different trees Amanita citrina (False Deathcap)
7*.	Cap colour variable but some shade of pinkish beige to vinaceous brown, never yellow; stem concolorous with large skirtlike ring, base at most clavate to swollen, no gutter; flesh where damaged (eaten by slugs etc) discoloring pink; smell insignificant; also under various trees Amanita rubescens (Blusher)
8.	Fruitbody chunky and solid, up to 10 cm across or more; gills notably widely spaced and fragile; cap white when young but soon discolouring with smudges of dirty grey to black; flesh - when fruitbody split lengthways - turns first pink (after 20 mins) then gradually dirty grey to black (after 1 hour) Russula nigricans (Blackening Brittlegill)
8*.	Fruitbody smaller, not as above; gills normally spaced; cap either red or yellow, contrasting with white gills and stem; flesh unchanging 9
9.	Cap cherry red; host specific to Beech Russula nobilis (Beechwood Sickener)
9*.	Cap ochre-yellow; under many different trees Russula ochroleuca (Ochre Brittlegill)
10.	Gills beige to buff, crowded to normally spaced, when damaged (slice with a penknife) exuding white droplets of latex (milk) genus Lactarius (the Milkcaps): 11
10*.	Gills pink / amethyst, widely spaced, without latex when damaged genus Laccaria (the Deceivers): 12
11.	Cap up to 6cm across, quite thick-fleshed, dull mid-brown with darker zones and spots near the margin, stem concolorous; smell distinctly oily (said to be of bed bugs!); host specific to Oak Lactarius quietus (Oakbug Milkcap)
11*.	Cap up to 4cm across, quite thin-fleshed, clay-pinkish to more orange-brown, lacking darker zones or spots; stem concolorous or paler; smell faint; under deciduous trees, particularly Beech, though not host specific Lactarius subdulcis (Mild Milkcap)
12.	Gills pink, retaining their original colour even when cap and stem fade; cap up to 3 cm across, cap and stem bright orange-brown when fresh and moist but hygrophanous, fading rapidly to almost white as it dries; very common Laccaria laccata (Deceiver)
12*.	Gills amethyst, also retaining their original colour even when cap and stem fade; cap up to 2 cm across, cap and stem rich amethyst purple when fresh and moist but hygrophanous as above; in some autumns common, in others not Laccaria amethystina (Amethyst Deceiver)
	KEY C (Mushrooms having pores - not gills, growing in soil)
1.	Cap firm to touch, evenly rich bay brown, smooth (slimy after rain); pores fine, pale yellow, quickly bruising dirty blue-green when pressed; stem brown, paler than cap; under deciduous and coniferous trees Imleria badia (Bay Bolete)
1*.	Cap quite soft to touch, blotchy sepia to olive brown and velvety, sometimes cracking with pink flesh beneath, not slimy after rain; pores larger, yellow, bruising blue either quickly or slowly when pressed; stem with red and yellow patches, also sometimes bruising blue either quickly or slowly if scratched; under deciduous trees and occasionally conifers (NB: Further separation between species only possible with advanced ID skills) Xerocomellus chrysenteron / cisalpinus / pruinatus (Red Cracking Bolete / Bluefoot Bolete / Matt Bolete)
	KEY D (Puffballs and similar)
1.	Growing on fallen deciduous wood or stumps; fruitbody ± smooth and pear-shaped, white at first, later brown; often forming tight clusters Lycoperdon pyriforme (Stump Puffball)
1*.	Growing in soil / litter; not in tight clusters but may be in loose groups 2
2.	Fruitbody as above in general appearance but covered in loose 'warts' which rub off on your finger; feels quite soft to the touch; if sliced open, outer skin thin and soft, flesh white though eventually turning brown as the spores mature, smell pleasant, 'mushroomy'; in deciduous litter Lycoperdon perlatum (Common Puffball)
2*.	Fruitbody not pear-shaped, more oval with width greater than height; dirty yellow, covered in coarse textured scales; feels rough and hard to the touch; if sliced open, outer skin thick and tough, flesh dirty olive brown, smell strong, unpleasant; under deciduous trees, most frequently Oak Scleroderma citrinum (Common Earthball)
	KEY E (Brackets, on deciduous wood, underside with pores or smooth)
1.	Fruitbody hard, firm or leathery and inflexible, thick-fleshed, up to or more than 6cm across, upper surface brown, reddish or whitish 2
1*.	Fruitbody tough but flexible, thin-fleshed, less than 6 cm across, upper surface with concentric zones of varying colours 4
2.	Fruitbody evenly whitish or pale grey to pale buff; pores beneath white, hard to see individually - ie tiny, their colour unchanging when pressed; only on Birch, both standing and fallen Fomitopsis betulina (Birch Polypore)
2*.	Fruitbody darker, some shade of brown, maybe reddish in places; pores tiny or not; on Birch or not 3
3.	Pores beneath easy to see - ie not tiny, buff brown and when fresh bruising pinkish when deliberately pressed; upper surface varying shades of brown with some concentric outer markings, centre often reddish or even blackish; usually semicircular, to 10(12) cm across, most commonly on standing or fallen Birch or Willow Daedaleopsis confragosa (Blushing Bracket)
3*.	Pores beneath hard to see individually - ie tiny, white but bruising instantly and lastingly dark brown when handled / scratched; upper surface woodlike, uneven to knobbly in places, evenly cocoa brown; very thick-fleshed, can get to more than 1 ft across; commonly on standing Beech or Oak but also on other deciduous woods, standing or fallen (NB: Further separation between species only possible with advanced ID skills) Ganoderma applanatum / australe (Artist's Bracket / Southern Bracket)
4.	Underside marked with fine pale cream to white pores; upper surface zoned with amazingly variable colours: black, brown, orange, green, even bluish, often in dense clusters / rows along fallen branches and log piles of many deciduous woods Trametes versicolor (Turkeytail)
4*.	Underside smooth - no pores, ochre yellow to brown - not cream to white; upper surface also zoned but less varied in colour than above: yellow, orange, ochre, greyish brown; surface finely hairy; also often in dense clusters / rows along fallen branches and log piles of many deciduous woods Stereum hirsutum (Hairy Curtain Crust)
	KEY F (Soft gelatinous fungi - beige, brown, pink, reddish purple, on deciduous wood)
1.	Fruitbody shaped and sized like a human ear, flabby though dry, reddish tan brown all over, inner surface - sometimes also outer surface - with wrinkles or veins; in clusters on standing or fallen Elder, less often on Beech Auricularia auricula-judae (Jelly Ear)
1*.	Fruitbody smaller, not shaped like an ear, beige-pink or purple tinted; on fallen deciduous wood and stumps, particularly Beech. 2
2.	Fruitbody to 3cm across, shaped like a spinning top with smooth flat upper surface then tapering below where more granular, single or in tight clusters, rubbery, squidgy and sticky, pale flesh-pink with violaceous tinge (sometimes almost colourless after heavy rain); only found on Beech Neobulgaria pura (Beech Jellydisc)
2*.	Fruitbody smaller, to 1.5cm across, at first forming brainlike squirming tight clusters, later more individually disc-shaped; colour deep pink-red to purple, not or hardly fading; common on Beech but also on stumps and rotting wood of other trees Ascocoryne sarcoides (Purple Jellydisc)
	KEY G (Hard, crusty fungi, dark brown to black, on dead or fallen wood)
1.	Fruitbody cylindrical, upright and black, either thin and flexible or thick like a finger 2
1*.	Fruitbody stemless, lying flat, forming individual small round balls / bobbles 3
2.	Fruitbody a thin flexible dry strand, about 5cm tall, black below but often branching antler-like above where cream to pinkish when fertile (later entirely black); common in colonies on fallen deciduous wood and stumps Xylaria hypoxylon (Candlesnuff Fungus)
2*.	Fruitbody tubular forming a thick black firm projection, up to 6 cm tall, sometimes slightly swollen clavate, surface granular, sometimes with a short narrow stalk beneath; in clusters, mainly on fallen Beech Xylaria polymorpha (Dead Man's Fingers)
3.	Only on fallen Beech; each round ball up to 1 cm across, cocoa-brown at first then black, surface covered in fine raised pimples; forming large colonies Hypoxylon fragiforme (Beech Woodwart)
3*.	Only on dead Hazel, either attached or fallen; as above but smaller and less regularly round in shape Hypoxylon fuscum (Hazel Woodwart)

SPECIES PROFILES

Amanita citrina (False Deathcap)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium sized mushroom with gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete.
When	Late summer to late autumn.
Where	Under a range of deciduous and coniferous trees in soil / litter.
Distinctive features	Cap lemon to pale yellow, with flat scale-like white veil remnants. Gills white, free. Stem white, base with round obviously defined marginate bulblike volva. Stem with pendulous, striate ring. Odour unique: strong and distinctive, of raw potato peelings! Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap convex when young, expanded and flat when mature. Stem ring can occasionally disappear in older specimens. Veil remnants can be plentiful, sparse or even absent - washed off by rain, also are easily wiped off. Amanita citrina var. alba is a white-capped variety.
Other Comments	Can be distinguished from Amanita phalloides (Deathcap) by its different volva shape (ie not saccate - baggy), cap colour not greenish, and different smell! The white variety can also be separated from other white Amanitas primarily by its smell plus a combination of the other above features.

Amanita rubescens (Blusher)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium sized mushroom with gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete.
Where	Under a range of deciduous trees in soil / leaf litter.
When	Early summer to late autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap brownish with pink tinge, with numerous flattened or slightly raised scale-like pale veil remnants. Gills white, free. Stem white with pinkish tinge and pendulous striate ring, base clavate to slightly bulbous, not with distinct volva. All parts of fruitbody slowly bruising pinkish, especially where handled or damaged by insects and slugs. Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap colours very variable, ranging from buff through to pinkish or vinaceous brown; convex when young, expanded and flat when mature. Veil fragments on cap variable in colour from greyish-white to pinkish buff, paler than cap, can be washed off by rain, also are easily wiped off.
Other Comments	This is our commonest Amanita, sometimes fruiting in large numbers - a very variable species, notably distinguished from other similar brownish Amanitas by its unique 'blushing' when damaged - though this feature is not always obvious. Both A. excelsa (Grey Spotted Amanita) and A. pantherina (Panthercap) are regularly confused with each other and with A. rubescens but neither of them blush pink, the first having grey velar remnants, the second having pure white velar remnants and a large bulbous volva with a gutter at the top (like a pot) with 1 or 2 bands above - it is also rare and dangerously poisonous. A further useful detail to notice: the upper surface of the ring is striate in both A. rubescens and A. excelsa but smooth in A. pantherina.

Ascocoryne sarcoides (Purple Jellydisc)
Photo credit: Claire Williams (L), Penny Cullington (R), Sarah Ebdon (insert)
What	A (very) small gelatinous fungus. A saprobic ascomycetes sometimes fruiting in discrete little clusters, more often in swathes creating large colonies.
Where	On fallen deciduous wood / stumps, often on Beech bark, rarely on conifer.
When	Late summer to late winter.
Distinctive features	Apothecia pink to purple-vinaceous, soft and gelatinous. Spore print white.
Variable features	Apothecia forming cup-like, blobby or brain-like spathulate shapes depending on stage of development. Usually sessile but can be short stalked.
Other Comments	Another similar but much less common species is Ascocoryne cylichnium which tends to be a bit bigger and flatter. When small and brain-like, as in the photo above, it is safe to name it A. sarcoides, but when bigger and flatter microscopy is required to separate the two species with any certainty.

Auricularia auricula-judae (Jelly Ear)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington, Sarah Ebdon (insert)
What	A small to medium jelly fungus. A saprobic basidiomycete growing in sparse groups or imbricate (overlapping) tiers on wood.
Where	On living, dying or dead Elder, standing or fallen; occasionally on Beech, rarely on other deciduous woods.
When	Any time of year, most notably winter and spring.
Distinctive features	Fruitbodies appears remarkably like a human ear, being about the same size when mature and attached to the wood in a similar way as an ear to the head. Outer surface soft with a beautiful downy texture created by minute hairs. Inner surface silky smooth and complete with ear-like wrinkles, often slightly dusty as the white spores are released. Spore print white.
Variable features	Size variable, also colour: usually warm tan to brown with pink or even violaceous tones. In moist weather when fully hydrated fruitbodies are gelatinous and wobbly. In dry weather they dehydrate and shrink to barely noticeable small dark and hard swellings.
Other Comments	Taking a spore print from this species is a good experiment. Have a go and see what they look like, it's very different from a spore print from a gilled fungus!

Coprinellus micaceus (Glistening Inkcap)
Photo credit: Neil Fletcher
What	A small mushroom with gills. A saprobic basidiomycete growing in closely packed troupes.
Where	On rotting deciduous wood, woody debris, roots.
When	Mainly early summer to winter but any time if conditions are suitably damp.
Distinctive features	Cap finely striate (furrowed), ochre-tan to brown, covered in fine powdery granules, like icing sugar. Gills crowded, free. Stem whitish, no ring zone. Spore print black.
Variable features	Cap ovate when young, expanding to campanulate when mature. Cap pale buff with darker apex, becoming greyer from the margin upwards as it begins to deliquesce. Sometimes the granules can be washed off in wet weather. Gills are pale at first, soon turning black when beginning to deliquesce.
Other Comments	The process of deliquescing, unique to the Inkcaps, takes the form of their gills liquifying as they decompose at maturity, gradually dissolving into a black fluid. Used in the past as ink, it can often be seen dripping from the lower cap edge or forming a puddle beneath.

Daedaleopsis confragosa (Blushing Bracket)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium size annual bracket with pores. A saprobic basidiomycete growing singly or in groups on wood.
Where	On dead or dying deciduous wood, most commonly on standing or fallen Birch or Willow.
When	Throughout the year, in its best condition in summer and early autumn.
Distinctive features	Brackets leathery, flat, semi-circular, with concentric zoned ridges on upper surface; usually notably lumpy. Pore surface tough; margin thin and quite acute. Laterally attached to substrate at the centre where often swollen. Spore print white.
Variable features	Brackets about 10-12cm across. Upper surface various shades of yellowish brown and in the centre often red or even black when old, sometimes almost entirely red. Occasionally forming a complete circle rather than a semicircle. Pores rounded becoming elongate, whitish at first, diagnostically bruising pink when deliberately pressed but only when fresh, becoming buff pinkish as it ages and eventually beige to pale brown at maturity when unchanging if pressed.
Other Comments	Can appear superficially similar to the genus Ganoderma (see entry below) but the medium sized pores either blush pink or are unchanged when pressed, in contrast to those of Ganoderma which are tiny and bruise or mark cocoa brown. From above Blushing Bracket can also appear similar to Lenzites betulinus (Birch Mazegill), found on similar substrates - most often Birch - but much less common. It, however, has distinct gill-like structures on the underside which never blush when pressed.

Fomitopsis betulina (Birch Polypore)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium to large annual bracket with tiny pores. A saprobic basidiomycete growing singly or gregariously, often well spread out along the substrate.
Where	Only grows on dead or dying Birch, both standing and fallen.
When	All year round but in its prime in late summer/autumn.
Distinctive features	Fruitbody with a distinctive almost leathery thin smooth upper surface that is separable from the flesh. Brackets have a little 'give' and instantly spring back if squeezed. Margin thick and rounded. Pores white, unchanging when pressed, notably tiny - barely discernable (use a x10 handlens). Flesh white, firm and light. Brackets laterally attached to the substrate at the centre where sometimes swollen Spore print white.
Variable features	Upper surface at first whitish to pale grey/buff, becoming greyish-brown or rich brown at maturity when often more or less mottled. When first emerging through the bark it can appear almost like a white hard round puffball before expanding and eventually in age often developing a wonderfully wavy edge like a pasty crust.
Other Comments	Sometimes found on the ground having fallen off its Birch host. Previously in genus Piptoporus, hence the slightly misleading English name because this is not a typical polypore. Also known as Razor Strop Fungus, this is one of the fungi found on Otzi the iceman who - it is speculated - could have been carrying it for its knife sharpening and fire lighting properties.

Ganoderma spp. G. applanatum (Artist's Bracket) G. australe (Southern Bracket)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington, Sarah Ebdon (insert)
What	A large to very large bracket with pores. A saprobic perennial basidiomycete growing singly or in tiers.
Where	On fallen or standing and living deciduous trees, most commonly Beech and Oak.
When	All year round, forming a fresh new annual growth layer every summer / autumn.
Distinctive features	Brackets sometimes more than 1 foot across, solid, rigid and semicircular, broadly attached rather than centrally. Upper surface hard and woody, a uniformly rich brown, with concentric ridges and knobbles. Pores white, tiny and barely discernible but when damaged or deliberately scratched, the scratch marks turn instantly and permanently brown - a useful diagnostic feature. Pores eventually dark brown in age before fresh growth appears the following year. Spore print cocoa brown.
Variable features	Sometimes seen coated in a thick layer of brown spores, just like a sprinkling of cocoa powder! This can also affect the surrounding vegetation (seen in photo above). Even when first bursting out of the wood as a white bulb the undersurface will mark and bruise brown.
Other Comments	G. australe is far more common that G. applanatum but the only reliable way to separate these two species is by comparing their spore size under a microscope. Unless considerably experienced, naming them as Ganoderma sp. in the field is all one should expect to achieve. However, very occasionally you come across a bracket affected by the insect Agathomyia wankowiczii (Yellow Flat-footed Fly) which lays its eggs on the pores causing distinctive galls (seen top left in photo above) but only in G. applanatum. This invertebrate can clearly separate the two species better than we can! The literal translation of the Japanese name is 'Powder covered monkey's bench'; pretty memorable! Quite astonishingly it is estimated that in both species a single bracket can produce over 5 billion spores in 24 hours!

Gymnopus dryophilus (Russet Toughshank)
Photo credit: Claudi Soler
What	A small size mushroom with pores. A saprobic basidiomycete often growing in large numbers.
Where	In mixed woodland leaf litter.
When	Late summer to early autumn.
Distinctive features	Whole fruitbody distinctly rubbery and flexible. Cap smooth, surface dry. Gills crowded, adnexed to free. Stem concolorous with cap, paler at apex, cylindrical and hollow. Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap basically deep russet to pale orange-brown but hygrophanous, ie colour strongly affected by conditions (whether in shade or sun, damp or dry), sometimes fading to buff, margin sometimes paler and centre sometimes darker - generally very variable. Cap convex when young but soon flattish. Gills off white to cream-buff.
Other Comments	There are several other extremely similar species of Gymnopus though G. dryophilus is by far the most common. One of these, G. erythropus (Redlegged Toughshank) has a distinctive red shiny stem. The name Toughshank refers to its tough and rubbery stem!

Hypholoma fasciculare (Sulphur Tuft)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small to medium-small size mushroom with gills. A saprobic basidiomycete, growing gregariously and caespitose (in tufts).
Where	On fallen deciduous and coniferous wood / roots / stumps.
When	Mainly late spring through to late autumn but not unusual at any time of year.
Distinctive features	Cap sulphur yellow with orange centre, surface smooth. Gills greenish-yellow but soon darker, eventually becoming purplish-black. Stem concolorous with cap, yellow above the faint black ring zone and browner towards the base. True to their name these sulphur-coloured mushrooms form tight clusters or tufts, often with their stem bases conjoined. Spore print purplish-black.
Variable features	Cap 2-5cm across though solitary specimens can be bigger, domed when young and expanding to flat at maturity, often with black velar remnants attached to the margin. Sometimes so closely packed their caps do not manage to fully expand.
Other Comments	Taste extremely bitter, but best not to use this test - the species is highly toxic! One of our commonest mushrooms, it is also one of our most fluorescent! A woodland stroll at dusk can be transformed with a UV torch.

Hypoxylon fragiforme (Beech Woodwart)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington, Nick Bowles (insert)
What	A very small gregarious saprobic pyrenomycete, forming large colonies.
Where	Only on fallen Beech.
When	All year round but producing ascospores in autumn and early winter.
Distinctive features	Stroma (pyrenomycete fruitbody) up to 6mm across or more, subglobose. Surface covered in distinct and finely raised pimples, easily viewed with a x10 hand lens. Interior hard and black. Spore print dark brown.
Variable features	Surface initially greyish, becoming salmon pink then cocoa-brown, eventually black.
Other Comments	The specific epithet fragiforme refers to the strawberry-like texture of the stroma surface. For comparison with similar H. fuscum see Other comments under that species below. There are many other crusty black pyrenomycetes on fallen wood, including other Hypoxylon species, but H. fragiforme and H. fuscum are much the most common.

Hypoxylon fuscum (Hazel Woodwart)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington, Jim Wills (insert)
What	A very small gregarious saprobic pyrenomycete forming large colonies.
Where	Almost exclusively on dead Hazel branches, often still attached.
When	All year round.
Distinctive features	Stroma (pyrenomycete fruitbody) up to 5mm across, brown hard warty growths erupting from the substrate, usually on bark, less often on bare wood. Irregularly cushion-shaped and rarely flattened. Surface fairly smooth. Interior brown to dark brown. Spore print brown.
Variable features	Surface initially buff to greyish, becoming brown to vinaceous-brown, eventually black. Texture from almost velvety (when in its immature anamorph state) to hard and crusty, sometimes wrinkled.
Other Comments	Very similar to Hypoxylon fragiforme (see immediately above) but smaller, more irregularly shaped and lacking such obvious pimples (ostioles) or surrounding swellings (perithecial contours). However, the key separation is the host wood: H. fuscum on Hazel, not Beech and H. fragiforme on Beech, not Hazel.

Imleria badia (Bay Bolete)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium size mushroom with pores, not gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete.
Where	Under both deciduous and coniferous trees.
When	Summer to late autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap distinctive bay (reddish) brown, smooth and quite shiny, often soft and spongy. Pores ± angular; pores and tubes soft, pale yellow, quickly bruising dirty blue-green when pressed. Stem pale yellow overlaid with streaks of brown. Flesh pale lemon yellow on cutting, on exposure to air becoming faintly blue particularly in the cap and reddish directly under the cap cuticle (skin). Spore print olive-brown.
Variable features	Cap rounded when young and expanding to flat in maturity, measuring 5-12cm across. Cap velvety when young, soon smooth, but after rain often extremely viscid (slimy)!
Other Comments	The specific epithet badia means bay brown. Previously in genus Boletus (where placed in older handbooks), the DNA era lead to its re-allocation as with many others within that genus.

Laccaria amethystina (Amethyst Deceiver)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small size dainty mushroom with gills. A strongly hygrophanous mycorrhizal basidiomycete growing singly or more often in troops, sometimes in large numbers.
Where	In leaf litter / soil in mixed woodland.
When	Summer to winter.
Distinctive features	Cap thin-fleshed, when fresh a distinctive rich violet/amethyst. Gills adnate/emarginate (broadly attached), widely spaced, interspersed with alternating lamellules (shorter gills), concolorous with fresh cap and notably retaining their colour into maturity - a useful diagnostic feature when the distinctive cap colour has faded. Stem concolorous with cap, thin and relatively long, tough and fibrillose (covered in longitudinal fibrils), fading with age. Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap intensely coloured when fresh but drying buff to almost white, generally up to 2-3cm across though solitary specimens can be bigger, margin sometimes frilly. Gills can appear paler with age when dusted with white spores. Stem often bent or twisted, the top sometimes marked with faint parallel grooves left by its close contact with the immature gills before expansion. The stem base can sometimes be hairy. Sometimes very mis-shapen fruitbodies occur.
Other Comments	This charismatic species is always a delight to find but although common and distinctively coloured can be surprisingly well camouflaged amongst the litter. In some autumns it can be incredibly prolific, in others it is conspicuous by its absence. If you spot one and 'get your eye in', more may well become apparent as if by magic!

Laccaria laccata (Deceiver)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small size dainty mushroom with gills. A strongly hygrophanous mycorrhizal basidiomycete growing singly or more often in large numbers, sometimes trooping.
Where	In leaf litter / soil in mixed woodland.
When	Summer to winter, often one of the first mushrooms to appear.
Distinctive features	Fruitbody with a reputation for fading as a result of exposure to sunlight or dry conditions and causing its deceptive change in appearance - hence its English name. Cap thin-fleshed, when fresh and moist bright orange-brown to rusty-brown, surface smooth to finely roughened. Gills adnate/emarginate (broadly attached), widely spaced and interspersed with alternating lamellules (shorter gills) peachy pink and retaining this colour into maturity though sometimes developing a slightly bluish hue - a useful diagnostic feature when the cap colour has faded. Stem concolorous with cap, fibrous and increasingly hairy towards base. Odour slightly raphanoid (radish-like). Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap amazingly variable in colour, progressing from rusty-brown through peachy pink, dry buff to almost white, 2-4cm across, initially convex then expanding to flat at maturity when often with sunken centre, funnel-shaped, margin sometimes frilly and distorted. Gills can appear paler with age when dusted with white spores. Stem variable in length, sometimes bent or twisted, even distorted.
Other Comments	Very similar to Laccaria amethystina above apart from basic fruitbody colour but often causing error and confusion owing to the plethora of other similar little brown mushrooms - often nicknamed LBMs! With both species of Laccaria the key to recognition is observing their gills: widely spaced and retaining their original colour though caps and stems may have faded completely. If in heathland and rather larger than expected with a notably fibrous stem and dusty cap, you may have found L. proxima (Scurfy Deceiver), not nearly as common and needing confirmation from spore shape with a microscope.

Lactarius quietus (Oakbug Milkcap)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small to medium size though sturdy mushroom with gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete, growing singly or in groups.
Where	Exclusively under Oak.
When	Late summer to autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap a warm toned pale mid-brown with darker concentric zonal markings and spots. Gills somewhat crowded, adnate to sinuate, cream to pale creamy-brown, exuding white droplets of latex (milk) when damaged or cut with a penknife, the latex retaining its colour (unlike some other Milkcaps). Stem concolorous with cap. Flesh firm and brittle. Odour distinctly oily, especially when rubbed (said to be of bed bugs which in turn are said to smell like the more recognisable odours of mouldy raspberries or damp towels). Spore print pale cream.
Variable features	Cap 2 to 9cm, shiny when wet but smooth and matt when dry. Cap convex at first then expanding to flat with a slight central depression. Gills becoming browner with age.
Other Comments	Knowing the quietus smell and noting the host tree are the two key features which quickly separate this species from the many other brownish milkcaps. This smell occurs not only in a few other Milkcaps (though none have it as strongly) but also in various other genera, commonly described amongst the mycological community as 'the quietus smell'. Giving this a species a sniff whenever you find it in order to get familiar with the smell is a good idea. Also only under Oak though much less common is L. chrysorrheus (Yellowdrop Milkcap). The cap is very similarly marked though paler and pinker than in L. quietus, also the latex turns strikingly chrome yellow after a minute or so.

Lactarius subdulcis (Mild Milkcap)
Photo credit: Neil Fletcher
What	A small to medium size mushroom with gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete, growing singly or in groups.
Where	Under various deciduous trees though commonest under Beech.
When	Summer to winter.
Distinctive features	Cap smooth, clay-pinkish to orange-brown, margin paler, lacking concentric rings or spots. Gills moderately crowded, adnate to sinuate, exuding white droplets of latex (milk) when damaged or cut with a penknife, the latex retaining its colour (unlike some other Milkcaps). Stem concolorous with cap, slightly darker towards the base. Odour usually faint but with a rubber component, not unlike that of L. quietus (see comments under that species above). Flesh thin, soft and quite brittle. Spore print pale pinkish cream.
Variable features	Cap 2-5cm, convex then soon expanding with a slight depression in the centre which can also have a small acute umbo. Gills pale at first maturing to a pinkish or clay buff, sometimes developing ochre spots.
Other Comments	Very easily confused with the equally common lookalike Lactarius tabidus which, however, favours Birch. The best way to separate the two is to dab the damaged gills with a hankie (preferably cotton and not paper!) to transfer a drop of latex, then wait for a minute or so. No discernable colour change = L. subdulcis; clear yellow developing = L. tabidus.

Lycoperdon perlatum (Common Puffball)
Photo credit: Justin Long, Jesper Launder (insert)
What	A small to medium-small gasteroid (stomach) fungus. A saprobic basidiomycete, usually in groups.
Where	In soil / litter in mixed woodlands and grasslands. When Summer to winter.
When	Summer to winter
Distinctive features	Fruitbody white to beige, light-bulb or pear-shaped, soft-fleshed with a thin but tough peridium (outer surface). The subglobose head gradually arises from the thick stem forming the overall fruitbody shape, ie is not very distinct from the stem; head covered with tiny loose warts or conical spines surrounded by shorter rounded warts (see insert above) which rub off very readily, revealing a constellation-like mosaic on the surface. Stem white, having smaller more sparse spines, tapering slightly towards base. Smell (if torn open) pleasantly mushroomy. Spore print olive-brown.
Variable features	Fruitbody 2 to 5cm across, 4 to 9cm tall, entirely white at first, head gradually turning cream to yellowish beige-brown in age. Gleba (flesh seen if head torn open) pure white at first, maturing into an olive-brown spore mass. The spores exit through an apical pore, an opening that develops in the top of the fruitbody.
Other Comments	The genus name Lycoperdon literally translated means wolf's flatulence, possibly a tongue-in-cheek reference to the spore cloud, a visible olive-green 'smoke' made up of millions of spores, which emanates through the apical pore in a puff into the forest. This action is triggered in nature by compression of the fruitbody caused by as little as a raindrop landing, though it is hard to resist a little squeeze to demonstrate this when coming across a suitably mature specimen! (See Other comments under L. pyriforme below for comparison with that species.) L. nigrescens (Dusky Puffball) can be confused with L. perlatum, occurring in similar woodland litter though much less commonly. It is smaller, darker brown with darker spines which do not rub off so readily.

Lycoperdon pyriforme (Stump Puffball)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington, Claudi Soler (insert)
What	A small gasteroid (stomach) fungus. A saprobic basidiomycete often in dense clumps.
Where	On fallen deciduous wood or stumps.
When	Summer to winter.
Distinctive features	Fruitbody markedly pear-shaped (hence its epithet), soft-fleshed with a thin but tough peridium (outer surface). Head appearing almost smooth but a x10 hand lens reveals a fine ornamentation of minute spines and granules (see insert above). Cap and stem more or less merge into one, gradually tapering towards the base. Stem white, with decreasing signs of ornamentation, flesh within spongy. Smell (if torn open) to some unpleasant, even pungent or gassy, to others pleasantly mushroomy. Spore print olive-brown.
Variable features	Fruitbody 2 to 4cm across, 3 to 4cm tall, off-white to pale cream at first, soon becoming yellow brown with age. Gleba (flesh seen if head torn open) pure white at first, maturing into an olive-brown spore mass. The spores exit through an apical pore, an opening that develops in the top of the fruitbody.
Other Comments	Separable from Lycoperdon perlatum (Common Puffball) by its smaller size and smoother peridium which lacks the obvious removable warts or any mosaic patterning, possibly also by its gassy smell. The difference in substrate - wood rather than soil or litter - is also significant. Even if a specimen appears to be growing on the ground, further investigation will reveal buried wood or old roots. (See under Other comments for L. perlatum above for further general information about the genus.)

Mucidula mucida (Porcelain Fungus)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small to medium-small size mushroom with gills. A saprobic basidiomycetes growing in large clusters.
Where	Only on Beech and often high up in the canopy, also on fallen branches.
When	Late summer to late autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap white, very thin fleshed, translucent and extremely slimy. Gills white, emarginate and distantly spaced. Stem white, opaque and viscid beneath a small membranous pendant ring. Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap 2-7cm across. Convex when young and expanding with age, retaining a domed shape. Immature caps are grey, sometimes with an ochre centre. Ring sometimes grey-brownish on the underside, sometimes lost.
Other Comments	These are a beautiful sight especially when viewed from underneath with sunlight streaming through showing off their translucent caps, like woodland jellyfish. Sometimes you'll find one of these on the woodland floor and look up to see many of them in the canopy. Make sure you touch one to appreciate just how slimy they are!

Mycena crocata (Saffrondrop Bonnet)
Photo credit: Nick Standing, Sarah Ebdon (insert)
What	A small delicate mushroom size with gills. A saprobic basidiomycetes, usually growing in small groups.
Where	Broadleaved woodlands, always on wood or woody debris, nearly always on fallen Beech.
When	Late summer to late autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap small and thin fleshed. Gills adnexed, white, often becoming stained with saffron-orange latex. Stem tall and delicate, markedly bright orange-red, if broken exuding bright orange droplets of latex, this colour often 'bleeding' into the gills and / or cap when damaged; base brown with fine strigose hairs. Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap 5-25 mm across, conical to campanulate, from white through buff to brown or even dark reddish brown. Stem 50-95mm tall.
Other Comments	If we were to choose a representative 'Fungus of Buckinghamshire', it would be either this species or the Porcelain Fungus above! Both being Beech specialists they are regularly on our Chiltern woodland species lists though not so common elsewhere in the UK. Genus Mycena (Bonnet) is a large family of generally small, delicate and often very similar nondescript little mushrooms with 'bonnet' shaped caps. M. crocata bucks the trend and is instantly recognisable from its orange stem and bright orange latex. It looks rather magical if you catch it backlit and glowing in the autumn sun. To demonstrate its amazing coloured latex try snapping off the bottom of the stem and use it like a mushroom quill to write on the back of your hand!

Mycena galericulata (Common Bonnet)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington, Linda Seward (insert)
What	A small to medium size mushroom with gills. A saprobic basidiomycete growing in groups, often in clusters.
Where	On stumps, fallen wood, buried wood of many deciduous trees, occasionally on conifers.
When	Spring to winter though mostly in autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap pale greyish-buff, margin distinctly striate, surface slightly greasy. Gills adnexed to emarginate with lamellules in between, but notably with characteristic and distinctive transverse ridges or 'galleries' running across from gill to gill on the underside of the cap (viewed best with a x10 hand lens and with cap held up to the light (see inset image lower left above). The bigger the cap the easier the galleries are to see. Stem smooth, concolorous with cap, paler at the top, rooting firmly into the wood substrate. Stem base with white strigose fibrils. Flesh firm, thin, white. Odour slightly farinaceous. Spore print white.
Variable features	Caps 20-60mm across, sometimes even bigger, conical to campanulate when young and becoming flatter with an umbo when mature, often radially wrinkled. Gills whitish to greyish often turning distinctly pink at maturity.
Other Comments	This is one of our largest Bonnets.

Mycena rosea (Rosy Bonnet)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium-small size mushroom with gills. A saprobic basidiomycete growing singly or gregariously.
Where	In deciduous woodland litter, especially under Beech and Oak.
When	Late summer to late winter.
Distinctive features	Cap soft pink and slightly hygrophanous, can be translucently striate towards margin. Gills emarginate, crowded and pale pink. Stem white, hollow, fibrous and distinctly tapering towards apex. Flesh white. Odour strongly raphanoid (of radish), giving a useful confirmation of its identity.
Variable features	Cap 25-60mm across, when young conical-campanulate, expanding to slightly umbonate, a beautiful rose pink, darker when young and fresh, paler as it expands, sometimes also with a slight lilaceous tint. Being hygrophanous it can fade when dry or exposed to sunlight becoming whitish pink with age, especially around the margin, also sometimes yellowish in the centre. Stem usually white but sometimes pale pink.
Other Comments	Like M. galericulata immediately above, this is one of the largest Bonnets and is a beautiful mushroom. It is more substantial in general appearance than many Bonnets. There are several closely related species which share the same raphanoid smell, M. pura (Lilac Bonnet) is the most likely to be confused with M. rosea. In fact until DNA proved otherwise M. rosea was known as M. pura var. rosea, ie not awarded species status. The differences: M. pura has distinctly lilac rather than pink tones in cap, flesh, gills and stem, is less substantial in general appearance and the cap becomes flattened when mature rather than retaining a semi-campanulate shape; furthermore the stem is slender and cylindrical rather than tapering. In the field there are instances when these differences are not as clearcut as they might sound here, furthermore (though rare) there exist pure white forms of both species! M. pura is not nearly as common as M. rosea.

Neobulgaria pura (Beech Jellydisc)
Photo credit: Paul Goby, Claire Williams (insert)
What	A (very) small size gelatinous fungus, lacking gills or pores. A gregarious saprobic ascomycete often growing in clusters.
Where	Almost exclusively on fallen Beech.
When	Late summer to early winter.
Distinctive features	Apothecia flesh-pink/buff and distinctly gelatinous, rubbery and sticky or squishy and roundish, tapering downwards to the substrate. Top/inner (fertile) surface smooth and paler. Outer surface somewhat granular. Spore print white.
Variable features	Apothecia up to 3cm across, can be very pale beige to almost brown especially when small, sometimes with a violaceous tinge, sometimes almost colourless after rain when more swollen, distorted and less firm. Shape generally turbinate (like a spinning top) with top either flat or more convex and cup-shaped.
Other Comments	It is possible that mature Ascocoryne sarcoides (Purple Jellydisc, also frequent on Beech) could be confused with immature examples of this species but the Ascocoryne has a deeper more purplish tone. It is also just possible that very immature Auricularia auricula-judae (Jelly Ear) might be confused with it but whilst the Auricularia starts off pale like Neobulgaria it soon develops a browner tone and a finely hairy texture, becoming clearly not turbinate in shape. Look around for more mature fruitbodies which will soon dispel any doubt, noticing also the wood substrate: if on Elder this points immediately to Auricularia, though if on Beech both are possible but Neobulgaria is far the most likely.

Phallus impudicus (Stinkhorn)
Photo credit: Barry Webb, Penny Cullington (both inserts)
What	A tall upright gasteroid fungus, lacking gills or pores. A saprobic basidiomycete growing singly, occasionally in groups, often with several scattered over a wider area.
Where	In leaf litter associated with dead wood and stumps etc in both deciduous and coniferous woodland.
When	Spring to late winter.
Distinctive features	Mature fruitbody distinctly and uniquely phallic in shape, its Latin binomial meaning 'shamelessly phallic', having a white stalk-like structure (the receptacle) topped with a campanulate head covered in foul-smelling sticky olive brown slime (the gleba) which contains the spores, the whole about 10-12 cm high. Head with a white central apical disc (seen clearly in the photo above) and as the gleba gradually disappears (consumed by insects) the white honeycombed mesh is revealed beneath (see left hand insert above). Receptacle thick but insubstantial and hollow, its surface covered in pits and holes. Fruitbody erupting (literally overnight) from a white ball (about 5cm across) commonly known as a 'witch's egg', having a thin outer skin filled with a jelly-like substance surrounding the primordial central core (see right hand insert above), the egg semi-submerged in litter / soil and attached to the substrate with a thick tough white mycelial cord - sometimes very long and linking one fruitbody to another. Smell foetid, disgusting (to us!) and extraordinarily pervasive: one can regularly detect the presence of this species well before one sees it! A spore print is not possible with this fungus due to the slimy gleba but the literature tells us the spores are yellow!
Variable features	The speed at which this unique fungus arises from egg to mature fruitbody is remarkable, often in a matter of hours. Only once the gleba is exposed to the air does its smell become apparent, its function to attract flies and other invertebrates which consume it then disperse the spores which are now stuck to their legs.
Other Comments	The egg stage may remain apparently inactive for a few days or until conditions trigger emergence; once fully grown the fruitbody is shortlived, soon collapsing and lasting less than a day, its purpose achieved once the gleba is consumed. This surely must be the easiest fungus to recognise! A less common, much smaller, less upright and more slender stinkhorn is Mutinus caninus (Dog Stinkhorn); once the gleba has dispersed from this fungus a narrow pointed orange-red head is revealed. If you're lucky enough to come across a stinkhorn like our photo above but with a stunning white 'lace skirt' or net-like veil attached to the base of the head, you've found the very rare Phallus duplicatus (Flasher)!

Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom)
Photo credit: Barry Webb (L), Paul Goby (R)
What	A medium size mushroom with gills. A basidiomycete that is sometimes weakly parasitic but more usually saprobic. Growing in imbricate (overlapping) groups or tiers, often in large colonies spread throughout the substrate, often high up on standing wood.
Where	On dead or dying trunks and branches of deciduous trees, most commonly Beech.
When	Late spring to early winter.
Distinctive features	Cap shell-like or spathulate (spoon shaped) and smooth. Gills deeply decurrent (ie curving a long way down the stem) and crowded. Stem lateral or eccentric (ie not central), whitish, hardly extending beyond the gills. Odour faint and mushroomy. Spore print very pale lavender.
Variable features	Cap 5 to 20cm across, convex with an inrolled margin when young and becoming centrally depressed with a wavy margin at maturity. Colour very varied: pale beige to shades of grey, also with bluish or brownish hues. Gills white to cream, in age staining yellow particularly at the margin.
Other Comments	There are three further but less common Oysters which can sometimes be tricky to separate. P. pulmonarius (Pale Oyster) is paler to almost white, also flatter, smells faintly of aniseed and the spore print is cream with no hint of lavender. P. cornucopiae (Branching Oyster) shares the anise smell and cream spore print but notably has longer stems with even more deeply decurrent gills, fused at the base. P. dryinus (Veiled Oyster) is the least common, grows often singly and often high up the trunk out of wounds; it shares the longer stem but the gills end abruptly halfway up in a nice neat line. The cap has a roughened surface owing to flecks of veil remnants, particularly at the margin.

Pluteus cervinus (Deer Shield)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium to medium-large size mushroom with gills. A saprobic basidiomycete growing singly or in small groups.
Where	On fallen dead wood and debris of broad-leaved trees, rarely on conifer.
When	Most of the year when mild and damp but mainly early summer to late autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap smooth but with faint radial streaks, centre often darker. Gills free (see insert above), also pink, notably crowded and ventricose (centrally swollen), edges concolorous. Stem cylindrical, whitish with dark brown fibres below. Flesh white. Odour not distinct but slightly raphanoid (of radish) Spore print pink.
Variable features	Cap 5-14cm across, some shade of dull brown - grey-brown, ochre brown, sepia to dark umber, reminiscent of a deer's flank. Convex when young, expanding to flat at maturity. Gills almost white when young and gradually turn pink then pinkish brown.
Other Comments	The diagnostic features of the genus Pluteus are the gill colour, gill attachment and occurrence on wood or woody debris. Most members of the genus are smaller than P. cervinus and separable only with microscopy though P. cervinus is by far the most common. On finding a Pluteus, if not small, the cap brown with no roughness, wrinkles or cracks, no dark gill edges and no bulbous stem, not on conifer, you are more than likely to have found P. cervinus. BFG added P. cyanopus - small and brown but with a blue stem - new to the UK species list in 2023.

Rhodocollybia butyracea (Butter Cap)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small to medium-small size mushroom with gills. A saprobic basidiomycete growing in large groups.
Where	In leaf or needle litter of broadleaved or coniferous woodland.
When	Autumn - often rather late to appear.
Distinctive features	Cap feels smooth and greasy, almost buttery (hence its English name). Gills free to adnate, whitish to pale cream. Stem clavate and tapering upwards, fibrous and flexible, noticeably hollow (obvious if squeezed between thumb and finger), base usually tomentose with fluffy mycelial strands. Spore print cream.
Variable features	Cap 4-8cm across, colour confusingly varied, from dark reddish brown (especially when young and fresh) to mid-brown or beige, often a mix of shades on one cap; hygrophanous, sometimes drying almost white particularly towards the margin. Cap shape campanulate when young then becoming convex to umbonate, margin sometimes upturned when mature. Stem basically concolorous with cap but paler in top half and often with purplish tints towards base where sometimes pointed or rooting.
Other Comments	This very variable mushroom is one which fools even quite experienced observers but is usually so common in woodland litter giving one the opportunity to become familiar with its various different guises. Even in dry conditions the cap seems to retain its greasy feel, hence this feature together with the tapering hollow stem are good points to check if in doubt.

Russula nigricans (Blackening Brittlegill)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	Medium to (very) large size mushroom with gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete growing gregariously.
Where	In soil / leaf and needle litter in deciduous and coniferous woodland - very common under Beech.
When	Summer to autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap thick fleshed, dry and smooth. Gills adnate, markedly widely spaced, thick and fragile, interspersed with many lamellules (shorter gills). Cap cuticle peeling ¾ from margin towards the centre. Stem stout. Whole fruitbody notably firm and solid, easy to crumble. Spore print white.
Variable features	Cap 10-20cm across, margin initially incurved, expanding to flattish and sometimes eventually almost funnel shaped. Gills white, bruising dirty red and eventually dirty brown. Flesh white but when damaged or cut turns slowly pink (after 20 mins) then eventually a dirty grey to black (after maybe an hour) (see the two left hand inserts above) Whole fruitbody at first ivory white, soon flushing brown and when really old entirely pitch black as if burnt.
Other Comments	There are a few Brittlegills which from above can appear ± identical and which also turn slowly black, but R. nigricans is alone in having these remarkable widely spaced gills. The old and blackened fruitbodies often persist for weeks - even months, looking more like clods of earth from a distance. These, however, are often worth taking a closer look at, especially late in the season, and can sometimes host other rare and unusual little mushrooms - either parasitic or saprobic. Very rare are three simply minute white mycenoid species of Collybia; less rare and not quite so tiny are two aptly named Piggyback species, Asterophora parasitica (Silky Piggyback) and A. lycoperdoides (The Powdery Piggyback).

Russula nobilis (Beechwood Sickener)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small to medium size mushroom with gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete.
Where	Host specific to Beech.
When	Autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap rosy pink to scarlet red, smooth and without striations at the margin. Cap cuticle can be peeled 1/3 of the way from margin towards centre revealing pink flesh beneath. Gills white and brittle, easily crumbling and flaking when handled. Stem white, firm and inflexible, like a stick of chalk. Flesh white and quite dense. Spore print whitish.
Variable features	Cap 3-9cm across, convex when young, margin at maturity usually remaining slightly rounded rather than flattening, sometimes developing a slight central depression. Cap sometimes with cream patches and regularly nibbled by rodents, snails and slugs. Gills sometimes with a greenish hue, becoming pale cream at maturity. Smell sometimes faintly of coconut, especially when young.
Other Comments	Taste extremely hot and acrid (but maybe best not to experiment with this test - the species is highly toxic!). A lookalike red Brittlegill is R. emetica (The Sickener), host specific to Pine, occasionally other conifers; its gills lack a greenish hue and the cap cuticle peels more readily, to at least 2/3 towards the centre. A further lookalike is R. silvestris (Woodland Brittlegill), host specific to Oak, but neither of these two look-alikes are that common. Their different tree association can help to separate them, but often mycologists will use a drop of the stain Guaiac on the stem as confirmation: instant bright blue reaction in R. nobilis but with little reaction in the other two. Brittlegills are relatively easy to recognise at genus level, but with over 160 UK members they are often one of the trickiest to identify to species. (See also Document 8 entitled Basic field characters for some common mushroom genera.)

Russula ochroleuca (Ochre Brittlegill)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium size mushroom with gills. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete, found under a broad range of both deciduous and coniferous trees.
Where	In mixed woodlands.
When	Late summer to late autumn.
Distinctive features	Cap ochre yellow, smooth and thick fleshed. Cap cuticle can be peeled 2/3 from the margin towards centre. Gills brittle, pale cream, contrasting with cap colour. Stem white, firm, like a stick of chalk. Flesh white, crumbly or easily broken. Spore print whitish-cream.
Variable features	Cap 4-10cm across, convex when young then flattening, margin can eventually become furrowed with age. Stem greying with age or when waterlogged.
Other Comments	Can be confused with the less common R. fellea (Geranium Brittlegill), host specific to Beech and with similar but paler cap colour, but both gills and stem are ± concolorous, lacking the distinctive contrast between cap, gills and stem as in R. ochroleuca. (R. fellea also has a sweet fruity smell.) Another similar Russula is R. claroflava (Yellow Swamp Brittlegill) which has a primrose yellow cap and darker cream gills, is host specific to Birch and as its English name suggests favours damp areas. Its gills and flesh turn slowly pinkish then grey-black when damaged (where slug-eaten) or with age.

Scleroderma citrinum (Common Earthball)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A medium to large size gasteroid (stomach) fungus. A mycorrhizal basidiomycete.
Where	Growing predominantly under Oak, also under Beech and Birch. Allegedly with a preference for acid soils but we see it in nearly every Chiltern woodland.
When	Summer to autumn.
Distinctive features	Fruitbody ± oval, having a greater width than height. Lacking much stem and attached to the soil with a clump of white mycelial threads. Peridium dirty yellow, covered in large irregular coarse textured scales. Feels hard to the touch. Odour strong and unpleasant when cut open - well known by mycologists as the 'Scleroderma smell' and also described as of smouldering rubber. Outer skin thick (seen in photo above) and tough if cut open. Spore print olive-brown.
Variable features	Peridium whitish through pale yellow to olive brown. 5-15cm across and sometimes green with algal growth in very aged fruitbodies. Flesh white but only when very young, soon becoming granular and turning purplish black, finally becoming a dark olive spore mass. When mature centre irregularly splitting open as if torn (not shown in the photo here). Old empty fruitbodies persisting long after the spores have dispersed.
Other Comments	The 'Scleroderma' smell is one worth becoming familiar with as it is referenced for various other quite common species including Lepiota cristata (Stinking Dapperling). Though very common, this earthball is occasionally found together with the rare pored and host specific mushroom Pseudoboletus parasiticus (Parasitic Bolete) which grows only in association with this particular earthball, arising from its base and sometimes with several fruitbodies literally growing out of it. We have several county sites for this bolete but it is one well worth looking out for when you find the earthball.

Stereum hirsutum (Hairy Curtain Crust)
Photo credit: Paul Goby
What	A small size gregariously fruiting annual 'half-corticioid / half bracket', occasionally fully resupinate but more commonly forming small leathery brackets in dense clusters and tiers. A saprobic basidiomycete.
Where	On freshly felled wood and log piles of many deciduous trees, most commonly Beech and Oak.
When	Visible most of the year and at its best in the autumn when sporulating.
Distinctive features	Brackets thin, tough and leathery but flexible, generally bright yellow to ochre or orange. Upper surface with concentric zones of varying shades and densely covered in short fine hairs (hirsute meaning hairy!) Lower surface completely smooth with a total absence of pores or gills, ochre yellow, orange to brown (never cream to white) and not bruising or bleeding. Stem absent. Spore print white.
Variable features	Brackets 2-6cm across, upper surface various shades of yellow, apricot, ochre, orange to brown, even greyish, darkening with age, arranged in zones. Margin often becoming wavy undulating at maturity. Tiers often forming large colonies in a rippling cascade, possibly suggesting the curtains of the English name?
Other Comments	There are other quite similar species of Stereum but they either lack the hairy surface, grow entirely resupinate, ie never forming a bracket, or bruise yellow or in two species strongly red when damaged. S. hirsutum is one of our commonest fungi - sometimes incorrectly called 'False Turkeytail' owing to its superficial similarity to that species. See Other comments under the entry for the genuine Turkeytail immediately below for a quick and foolproof way to separate the two species.

Trametes versicolor (Turkeytail)
Photo credit: Penny Cullington
What	A small to small-medium size brackets forming large and crowded overlapping tiered groups. A saprobic basidiomycete.
Where	On dead wood of deciduous trees, most commonly Beech and Birch.
When	All year round, but usually in poor shape by the spring.
Distinctive features	Brackets tough but thin fleshed (1-3mm) and flexible. Upper surface with concentric zones of varying colours (see 'Variable features' below) including some dark bands. Margin usually edged with a white band. Some zones minutely hairy with a felty surface, others - usually the darker almost blackish zones - lacking hairs and with a silky sheen. Lower surface with distinct but small pores, white to pale cream (see insert photo) Stem absent. Spore print white.
Variable features	Brackets 3-9cm across. Upper surface colours amazingly variable: black, browns, orange, ochre, greens, reds, greys, even violet or blue. Different collections can appear remarkably unalike, some with a pale colour range, others with a darker range. Texture uneven at first, becoming smoother with age. Margin quite thick at first, soon becoming thinner and sometimes undulating in maturity.
Other Comments	There are other quite similar species of Trametes but none with this range of colours and zoning, nor are they common. Both T. versicolor and Stereum hirsutum (see immediately above) are extremely common and are regularly confused; the key feature to separate them is the lower surface: white and pored in T. versicolor but orange and smooth in S. hirsutum.

Xerocomellus spp. X. chrysenteron (Red Cracking Bolete) X. cisalpinus (Bluefoot Bolete) X. pruinatus (Matt Bolete)
Photo credit: Jackie Ewan (L), Jesper Launder (R top), Barry Webb (R centre), Claudi Soler (R bottom).
What	Medium to large size mushrooms with pores, not gills. Mycorrhizal basidiomycetes.
Where	Under deciduous trees, predominantly Beech and Oak, though X. chrysenteron occurs mainly under conifers.
When	Early summer to late autumn.
Distinctive features	Fruitbodies generally soft, fleshy and spongy, somewhat lightweight. Cap some shade of brown, finely velvety and dry, not viscid (slimy) even after rain. Pores large and irregular, soft, yellow usually bruising blue-green to some degree, either quickly or slowly, strongly or weakly. Tubes when pulled apart tending to tear open along their length, ie ripped in half - a characteristic which separates the genus Xerocomellus from other boletoid genera in which the tubes pull apart cleanly, remaining intact along their length. Stem yellow overlaid with varying red markings. Flesh from almost white to very pale to bright yellow. Spore print olive brown.
Variable features	Caps mostly 3-12cm across, convex at first, expanding to flat at maturity; colour a range of browns, also ochre to grey to blackish red, plum-brown, chestnut. Surface sometimes cracking to reveal pink flesh beneath the cuticle. Pores turning dirty olive-yellow as they age. Stem markings can be flushes, streaks, fibrils or punctae (tiny dots) of red. Stem surface may bruise blue to varying degrees. Cap flesh bruising blue from barely at all and only in part to strongly and throughout, either slowly to rapidly - this variation occurring naturally across the three species but also affected by weather conditions: moist and fresh = stronger reactions, either dry or waterlogged = weaker reactions. Stem inner flesh may also have some areas of red to vinaceous particularly towards the base.
Other Comments	To view flesh and colour changes, slice the whole mushroom from top to bottom through the cap centre and stem, observing immediately / after 5 mins / after 15 mins. (This technique is useful for many bolete species). These three equally common species of Xerocomellus are here grouped together owing to their many overlapping features which render them tricky to separate with any certainty. We feel that at this early stage of your mycological journey recognising them as Xerocomellus sp. (ie an unspecified Xerocomellus) counts as a success; in fact, this level of determination is as far as many with much more experience are prepared to go! Further specialist in-depth study is required to separate them, and some consider that the only really safe way is with DNA sequencing. Until this century all three would have been named Boletus chrysenteron!

Xylaria hypoxylon (Candlesnuff)
Photo credit: Nick White, Paul Goby (insert)
What	A small insubstantial fungus. A saprobic pyrenomycete ascomycete rarely growing singly, more often in small groups or colonies.
Where	On deciduous dead wood and stumps.
When	All year but especially noticeable in autumn and winter.
Distinctive features	Fruitbody upright and black, dry, thin and flexible, up to about 5cm tall, the non- fertile lower half finely hairy.
Variable features	Stroma 2-8mm diameter and 2-4cm tall, forming simple individual spikes or clustered and branching antler-like at the tips where, when fresh and actively growing, covered in white-cream powder-like conidia. Later in their lifecycle they are less conspicuous and entirely black, at this stage producing black ascospores from perithecia embedded within the upper fertile part of the stroma. Fruitbodies can last for months - well after they've finished 'fruiting'.
Other Comments	If you find these at the conidial stage with their distinct whitish tips (as in the photos above), you can tap or blow on the tip to induce a lovely 'puff'; this is the stage when a simple spike is especially evocative of their English name. Once you 'get your eye in' you will start to spot them everywhere on the woodland floor, enjoying their myriad of different shapes from regal stag's antler, impish hand or even wizened wand!

Xylaria polymorpha (Dead Man's Fingers)
Photo credit: Derek Schafer
What	A small stocky digit-like fungus. A saprobic pyrenomycete ascomycete growing in small groups.
Where	On deciduous dead wood, particularly Beech.
When	Mainly summer to autumn.
Distinctive features	Upright, black and irregularly cylindrical, thick like a finger, firm. Flesh quite hard and white (seen in photo above). Spore print black.
Variable features	Stroma 1 to 3cm diameter and 3-6cm tall. Sometimes slightly swollen or clavate, sometimes with a short narrow basal stem, rooting firmly into the wood substrate. Initially topped with a pale blue-grey powder - the conidia of the asexual stage, later becoming brown to black when at the more commonly seen sexual stage (as shown in the photo above). Texture dry and granular, the result of the perithecia embedded within the stroma.
Other Comments	The specific epithet, meaning 'of many shapes', refers to the variety of forms produced by this fungus. Less common than the closely related X. hypoxylon (seen immediately above), this species often forms clusters which can appear eerily like a human hand, as their gruesome English name suggests! There is a further very similar but more unusual species - X. longipes (Dead Moll's Fingers) which grows with the same substrate and habitat and has taller and more regularly shaped 'fingers' with a more marked thinner basal stem. The two are sometimes confused in the field but can be separated easily with a microscope from their different spore sizes.

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Document 8

BASIC FIELD CHARACTERS OF SOME


COMMON MUSHROOM GENERA

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Document 9

GLOSSARY of BASIC MYCOLOGICAL TERMS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 

A adnate	(Of gills) fully attached to the stem across their full depth, forming a right angle between stem and the bottom of the gills. (See Document 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment for further explanation and images.) (Of cap cuticle) resistant to peeling from the margin towards the centre.
adnexed	(Of gills) similar to adnate but attaching to the stem only by its upper inner edge, ie not forming a right angle but curving upwards and joining the stem higher up than its full depth. (See Document 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment for further explanation and images.)
agaric	A general term for any mushroom-shaped fruitbody, ie having a cap and stem (not to be confused with the genus Agaricus (with capital A).
Agaricus	A large genus which includes Agaricus bisporus (Cultivated Mushroom) available for sale in all greengrocers (not to be confused with the general term 'agaric' - see entry above. (See also Document 2 entitled Kingdom fungi & discussion about names).
amyloid	(Of spores / fungal tissue) having a positive instant blue/black reaction when treated with Melzers Reagent.
anamorph	The asexual stage in the lifecyle of some fungi when conidia are cloned; also sometimes known as Fungi imperfecti or Imperfect fungi. (See also under teleomorph below.) (See also Document 3 entitled All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes.)
anastomosed	(Of gills) having interconnecting ridges or veins between them.
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annulus	Latin term for the ring (or skirt) - the circular membranous tissue which occurs on the stem of some agarics. It is formed from the partial veil, originally covering the immature gills, which then drops away as the fruitbody expands. Sometimes distinct and persistent, sometimes faint and transient leaving only a vague 'ring zone', its presence should be noted, also details such as position on the stem, whether movable up and down, whether fibrous, double, pendulous, ascending, sheathing etc.
apex	(Of stem) the highest point; (in microscopy, of spores) the tip opposite the apiculus.
apical pore	(Of gasteroid species) an opening at the apex of a structure as in the central point of a puffball. (See also under germ pore below).
apothecium(-a)	Latin term meaning the body of a cup fungus (discomycete) with hymenium on upper surface.
appendiculate	(Of cap margin) indicating the presence of overhanging tissue - sometimes forming a fringed or ragged appearance. See also under partial and/or universal veil.
applanate	(Of cap, bracket, corticioid fungi) flat, flattened or lying horizontal.
arachnoid	(Of veil or fungal surface) describing the fine membranous web often seen on the stem in the genus Cortinarius, also describing the surface texture of some corticioid species.
ascocarp	A general term for a fruitbody that produces asci.
ascomycete	A fungus that produces ascospores - belonging to the phylum Ascomycota.
Ascomycota	Latin term for the phylum containing all ascomycetes, the spore-shooters.
ascospore	A spore having developed within an ascus.
ascus(-i)	The spore-producing cell within the hymenium of all ascomycetes. (See also Document 3 entitled All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes.)
asexual	See anamorph above.
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B basidiocarp	Term meaning the fruitbody of a fungus that produces basidia.
basidiospore	A spore having developed within a basidium.
basidium(-a)	The spore-producing cell within the hymenium of all basidiomycetes. (See also Document 3 entitled All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes.)
basidomycete	A fungus that produces basidiospores - belonging to phylum Basidiomycota.
Basidomycota	Latin term for the phylum containing all basidiomycetes, the spore-droppers.
BFG	Abbreviation of our group, the Buckinghamshire Fungus Group.
binomial	A two-part Latin name for an organism comprising Genus and species (generic name and specific epithet). (See also Document 2 entitled Kingdom Fungi & discussion about Latin / English names.)
BMS	See British Mycological Society below.
boletoid	(Of a mushroom) basically 'like a Boletus', ie having characteristics of the many Bolete genera with cap, stem and pores.
bracket	General term for a basidiomycete growing ± at right angles from the wood substrate like a shelf support, usually with little or no stem, usually tough or woody and with pores, occasionally with gill-like slits or teethlike spines.
British Mycological Society	A Registered Charity founded in 1896 to promote the scientific study of fungi. Membership is open to all those interested in supporting, promoting and learning about the world of fungi. Sections of the BMS are devoted to different aspects of the fungal world including cutting-edge research in fungal science, field mycology and the conservation and recording of fungi, the provision of educational resources and outreach for those of all ages and experience. The BMS is now considered one of the major mycological societies in the world. Info from https://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk
bulbous	(Of stem) having an abruptly swollen base.
button	(Of agarics) the immature stage of development before expansion and with the stem still enclosed within the primordial universal veil.
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C caespitose	(Of mushrooms) having a crowded habit, growing in tight clusters, often conjoined at the base.
campanulate	(Of caps) shaped like a bell.
caulocystidia	Microscopic sterile cells found on the stem of some mushrooms.
cf.	An abbreviation of the Latin 'confer' meaning compare; placed between genus and species name to indicate a close likeness to that species but not an exact match, ie some doubt exists.
cheilocystidia	Microscopic sterile cells found on the gills of some mushrooms.
clavarioid	A fungus having a shape similar to the group of basidiomycetes having thin erect coral-like fruitbodies, either simple or branched, also known as coral fungi.
clavate	(Of stem / microscopic cells) shaped like a club.
concave	(Of caps) with margin raised and centre sunken forming a bowl shape (the opposite of convex).
concolorous	(When comparing parts of a fruitbody) being of the same colour, regularly applied to stem or gills matching cap colour.
conidium(-a)	An asexual spore (sometimes called a chlamydospore) produced at the anamorph stage of some fungi. See also anamorph above.
coniferous	(Of trees) those which are evergreen, bear cones and have needles (ie reduced leaves); apart from Larch they retain their foliage throughout the year.
context	The inner flesh of a fungal body, also called the trama.
convex	(Of caps) having a rounded shape / hemispherical / domed (the opposite of concave).
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coprophilous	(Any fungus) growing on dung.
cortex	The ± thick outer covering or layer of a fruitbody.
corticioid	A general term for those basidiomycetes lacking a cap or stem but typically forming a thin flat crust growing flush on fallen branches / logs / stumps, often on the underside. Also known as crust fungi.
cortina	(Of genus Cortinarius, also Inocybe) a cobweb-like mesh (the partial veil) of fine fibrils adjoining the cap margin to the stem apex in young specimens, often soon lost though remnants of which can sometimes remain on the stem as a ring zone. Once disappeared, its presence can sometimes be detected from mature spores having dropped and adhered to the few remaining fibrils.
crenate	(Of cap margin / gill edge) notched or scalloped.
cuticle	(Of an agaric) the skin of the cap, also sometimes called the pellicle. In some genera (particularly Russula) its texture is important - whether (partly / wholly) removable by peeling or not, whether elastic, gelatinous, fragile.
cystidium(-a)	A microscopic sterile cell found in many basidiomycetes, in agarics mainly on the gills but also sometimes on stem and/or cap, in corticioids on the outer surface. The presence, absence, shape, size and ornamentation of cystidia are often critical in identification.
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D deciduous	(Of trees and other plants) those which have true leaves but which shed them in autumn.
decorticated	(Of fallen dead rotting wood) having lost its the bark through decay.
decurrent	(Of gills) sloping / running from the cap underside down the stem (See Document 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment for further explanation and images.) (See also under subdecurrent below.)
dehiscing	(Of some ascos and myxomycetes) the act of splitting open at maturity to facilitate the dispelling of spores.
deliquesce(-ent)	(Of genus Coprinus, Coprinellus, Coprinopsis - Inkcaps) fruitbody dissolving into black liquid as it decomposes.
depressed	(Of cap) having a sunken centre.
dextrinoid	(Of spores, fungal tissue) having a positive instant brown reaction when treated with Melzers reagent.
diagnostic	An adjective in mycology used to indicate that a particular feature is definitive in separating a species from others which are similar.
dichotomous key	A series of pairs of descriptive phrases known as couplets and designed as a scientific tool to identify groups of organisms by making a choice over each pair and following logical steps to arrive at an identification. (See also Document 7 entitled The 40 commonest woodland fungi in Bucks.)
discomycete	A general term for a disc-/cup-shaped ascomycete.
duff	A North American forestry term for the layer of organic material in various stages of decomposition on the floor of a forest.
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E eccentric	(Of stem) offset to one side, not central.
ectomycorrhizal	See under mycorrhizal.
effused-reflexed	(Of some brackets) growing mainly flush to the substrate (resupinate) apart from a small margin that extends to form a basic cap-like structure.
elaters	(Of some slime mould genera) the microscopic free delicate thread- or hair-like elements found in the fertile head. They are hygroscopic (i.e. they respond to humidity, causing them to either coil or uncoil) and aid the development and dispersal of spores. Their shape, ornamentation and length can be useful in identification.
emarginate	(Of gills) notched just before attaching to the stem. (See Document 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment for further explanation and images.)
endomycorrhizal	See under mycorrhizal.
ephemeral	(Of cap veil, also stem ring) present when immature but soon lost or disappearing.
epigeous	(Of fungi) reproducing above ground level - ie the opposite of hypogeous.
epithet	The second part of a binomial Latin name - sometimes called the specific epithet - pertaining to species name. eg bisporus in Agaricus bisporus. Often descriptive of a relevant characteristic of the organism or honouring a famous mycologist.
erumpent	Breaking through the surface of the substrate, in pyrenomycete fruitbodies forcing their way through bark, in hypogeal fungi bursting out of the ground.
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F farinaceous	Smelling of (rancid) flour or mealy; occurring in many basidiomycete genera, particularly Entoloma, notably in Cerioporus dryadeus (Dryads Saddle) and Clitopilus prunulus (The Miller).
FE crystal / FeSO4	A round flat piece of crystal (the size of a 1p piece) made of ferrous sulphate - iron salts, used as an identification aid in the genus Russula. When rubbed on the stem the colour reaction is noted.
fibrillose	(Of cap or stem) a surface covered in thread-like filaments or fine fibrils.
flask fungi	The colloquial name for the pyrenomycetes. (See under pyrenomycetes below.)
flock / floccule(-ulose)	(Of surface texture) a short very fine soft tuft, possibly woolly or hairy / cottony, (flecked with such tufts). (See also under squamules below.)
FRDBI	The Fungal Records Database of Britain and Ireland.
free	(Of gills) not attaching to the stem but to the underside of the cap, leaving a visible gap between the inner end of the gills and the stem. (See Document 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachment for further explanation and images.)
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G gasteroid fungi	A general term for those basidiomycetes conveniently grouped together for sharing a method of producing spores within the fruitbody rather than on the outer surface, though not necessarily closely related. Also known as stomach fungi. (See document 3 entitled All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes.)
genus(-era)	The Latin taxonomic term for the grouping of related organisms within a biological Kingdom. Together with the term 'species' it forms the binomial name of any living organism - genus name first (always capitalised) then species (always lower case). If the genus name of a fungus is known but not the species, it is referred to by its genus name followed by sp. (eg Coprinopsis sp. indicating an unknown Inkcap).
germ pore	(In microscopy) the tiny opening or thinning of the outer wall found at the tip of the spores in some species, seen as a tiny flat paler area. In some species it is central (ie right at the tip), in others it is eccentric (ie just off centre). Sometimes also called an apical pore.
gills	(In mycology) the spore-bearing blades / vertical plates on the underside of many mushrooms. The botanical term is lamellae.
gleba	(Of some gasteroid fungi) the inner tissue and spore mass of puffballs and earthstars, also the outer slimy foul-smelling coating on the tip of stinkhorns containing spores.
globose	Spherical.
granulose	(Of cap / stem surface) covered in fine granules (tiny grains).
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gregarious	Growing in clusters or in groups rather than singly.
guttation	A term for the formation of weeping droplets occurring on the surface of some fungi particularly when fresh or in damp conditions. Usually colourless but sometimes coloured, they are common in the mushroom Rhodotus palmatus (Wrinkled Peach), also in the brackets Fistulina hepatica (Beefsteak Fungus), Abortiporus biennis (Blushing Rosette) - both red! - Pseudoinonotus dryadeus (Oak Bracket) - amber - and occasionally Fomitopsis betulina (Birch Polypore) and Laetiporus sulphureus (Chicken of the Woods).
gutter	(Of stem base) having a sharp delineation / ridge. Occurring on the volva of some species of Amanita, also on the bulb of some species of Cortinarius and Inocybe, when described as marginately bulbous.
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H head	(Of gasteroid fungi) the top section, above the stem, containing the gleba.
hirsute	Of any fungal surface) appearing hairy.
host specific	Referring to a fungus that is dependent on one particular tree or plant for its existence.
hygrophanous	(Of cap) having a cuticle prone to fading, losing its original colour as it dries out, especially when exposed to sunlight, in warm dry conditions or after collection. Often resulting in two-tone cap colour. Some species tend to dry from the margin to the centre, others vice versa.
hymenium	(Of both ascomycetes and basidiomycetes) the spore bearing tissue containing either asci or basidia together with various sterile cells and hyphae (long cylindrical cells, known collectively as trama). In mushrooms the outer gill surface (or tubes if pored) form the hymenium, in brackets the tubes adjacent to the pores, and in cup fungi the flesh just under the surface.
hymenophore	The part of the fungal fruitbody that houses the hymenium.
hypha(-ae)	Microscopic tubular cylindrical filamentous cells - the basic building blocks of mycelium and fungal fruiting bodies.
hypogeous	(Of truffles) having fruitbodies remaining beneath the surface of the ground through life. (See also document 10 entitled All about truffles.)
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I imbricate	Any fungus forming overlapping tiers of frutibodies, like roof tiles.
imperfect fungi	See anamorph above.
inamyloid	(Of spores / fungal tissue) having a negative reaction when treated with Melzers Reagent, ie causing no colour change.
infundibuliform	(Of cap) shaped like a funnel.
intermediate gill	See lamellules.
involute	(Of cap margin) markedly inrolled.
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K Kingdom	The second highest taxonic rank, just below Domain, that classifies all living organisms.
KOH - potassium hydroxide	A chemical used in mycology as an identification aid, producing useful diagnostic colour reactions both in the field and in microscopy. It is used in 3%, 10%, even 40% solution but is a dangerous substance needing care and respect.
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L lamellae	The Latin term for gills.
lamellules	A term indicating the incomplete shorter part-gills interspersed between the full-length gills and not reaching from the stem to the cap margin. Sometimes called intermediate gills.
lateral	(Of a stem) growing from the side of a cap rather than centrally.
latex	A milk-like juice or liquid that exudes from some fungi when damaged or cut. Characteristic of the genus Lactarius (Milkcap) where present in the gills - usually white but often changing to yellow, greenish, orange, pink, even violet according to species; also occurring in the stems of some members of genus Mycena (Bonnet), occasionally in other genera and also in some ascomycetes.
LBJ or LBM	A nickname short for Little Brown Job or Little Brown Mushroom, used by field mycologists to describe any manner of unidentified, usually gilled, small indistinct brown fungi.
lilaceous	Coloured lilac.
limoniform	(Of spores) lemon-shaped.
loupe	Another name for a x10 handlens, used for viewing minute detail or species in the field.
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M macroscopic	Describing those features of a fungus visible with the naked eye, as opposed to those only visible using a microscope.
marginate	(Of a bulbous stem base) having a well-defined rim or gutter. (Of genus Inocybe) a species lacking a cortina even when young.
Melzers reagent	An iodine-based chemical used as an aid to identification in mycology.
micron	One thousandth of a millimetre - essential for measurement in microscopy. In keys etc represented by the symbol µm.
morphology(-ical)	The study of the form, shape, structure of an organism, ie its visible characteristics (both macro- and microscopic) / in mycology pertaining to the general appearance of a fungus.
mucilaginous	(Of cap and/or stem surface) having a covering of slime.
mucronate	(Of spores) ending in a sharp point.
mycelium(-a)	The Latin term for the mesh-like network of fine white filaments forming the main body of any fungal organism, the majority of which remains hidden from view in the soil / substrate.
mycelial strands	The fine filamentous hyphae (sometimes furry and branching) which can be seen above ground acting as thin roots attaching a fruiting body to its substrate, usually white but occasionally coloured, eg pink or yellow, when diagnostic. See also under rhizomorph.
mycology(-ical)	The study of Kingdom Fungi / pertaining to a fungus.
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mycorrhizal	(Of certain genera of fungi) forming symbiotic relationships with plants. Ectomycorrhizal fungi form a sheath around a plant's roots from where they produce fruiting bodies above ground. Endomycorrhizal fungi live entirely within a plant's roots.
myxomycete	A phylum of fungus-like organisms, commonly known as myxos or slime moulds and originally thought to be part of Kingdom Fungi but now placed within the separate kingdom Protista. Often studied and recorded by mycologists though no longer classified as fungi, they have a multi-staged lifecycle, living in/on the substrate until conditions trigger their search for nutrients before sporulating. Many species are tiny, with sporangia often only a mm high. (See also document 11 entitled All about slime moulds.)
Myxomycota	Latin term for the phylum containing all myxomycetes, the slime moulds. (See also Document 11 entitled All about slime moulds.)
myxosporium	(Of spores) a layer on the outer spore wall present in some hypogeal fungi which can help differentiate between certain species; also called the peridiosporium.
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O ostiole	A small hole or opening through which ascospores are released. Occurring mainly in the pyrenomycetes (see below) they can be seen with a x10 handlens covering the crusty outer surface as tiny slightly raised pimples.
ovate / ovoid	(Of spores and some other fungal parts) egg shaped.
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P paraphyses	Microscopic sterile structures within the hymenium of some ascomycetes, usually interspersed between each spore-producing ascus. Their measurements, shape, also whether they extend beyond the hymenium, can be important in identification.
parasitic	Growing on and feeding off live animal or plant material.
partial veil	(Of some mushrooms) a white membraneous or filamentous covering originally attached to the stem apex and cap margin to protect the immature gills. As the mushroom expands the veil disrupts, sometimes remaining as a ring or ring zone on the stem, sometimes leaving ragged remnants on the cap margin, but more often disappearing completely. See also under annulus and cortina.
pathogen, pathogenic	A type of fungus that causes disease in another organism.
pendulous	(Of the stem ring) describing its habit of hanging downwards like a skirt.
peridium(-ial)	(Of some gasteroid, truffle and rust species) the Latin term for the outer wall of the fruitbody, or describing cells found in the peridium.
perithecium(-ia), (-ial)	(Of pyrenomycetes) the Latin term for the roundish 'flasks' containing the asci, an adjective referring to the perithecium.
Phylum(-a)	The collective term for the class one taxonomic level below Kingdom, based on reproductive system and DNA. In Kingdom Fungi the Basidomycota and Ascomycota are classified in Phyla.
pileipellis	The Latin term for the uppermost hyphal layer of a cap, ie immediately under the cuticle. The shape and formation of the cells therein (viewed used a microscope) are significant in any determination, not only at species but also at genus level.
pileus	(Of a mushroom) the Latin term for the cap.
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plasmodium	(Of myxomycetes) the early stage in the life cycle - similar to mycelium in fungi. The plasmodium is an amorphous often slimy mass of cytoplasm that literally creeps along seeking out nutrients during this vegetative/feeding stage. It is this stage which gives rise to the colloquial term slime mould.
plus / minus sign ±	A symbol commonly used as an abbreviation for 'more or less' especially when text space is limited.
polypore	A term for a group of basidiomycetes closely related to brackets which have pores beneath and a central stem, more like a mushroom. (Not to be confused with Boletes - mushrooms having pores.) (See also Document 3 entitled All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes.)
pore	(Of boletes, polypores and many brackets) the tiny ± round holes at the bottom of a spore-bearing tube. Many basidiomycetes produce their spores on the inside surface of a tube and they are released through the open pore at the end of that tube. The size, shape and colour of pores can be useful diagnostic characters, also whether they change colour when bruised. See also under tubes below.
primordium(-ia, -ial)	The early stage of an organism / in the life cycle of a fungus describing the fruiting body before it emerges and starts to swell.
Protista	Previously classified as a Kingdom, this now contains a mixed group of eukaryotic organisms (ie having a membrane-enclosed nucleus) but which bear some relationship to other Kingdoms of animals, plants and fungi.
pruinose	(Of any fungal surface) covered with a very fine' bloom', like chalk dust or icing sugar.
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pubescent	(Of any fungal surface) covered with short fine hairs.
punctate(-ae)	(Of stem surface) marked with very fine spots or dots (often requiring a x10 hand lens to see them clearly).
punky	(Of fallen wood) decayed far enough for the cellular structure of the wood to have lost its structural stability; usually corky and light but not fully rotten.
pyrenomycete	The general term for those ascomycetes having a crusty hard surface, usually brown or black. Also known as the flask fungi, so named after their microscopic flask-shaped cells containing the asci. See also under perithicia above.
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Q Q ratio	(In microscopy) a value obtained by dividing spore length by spore width, often quoted after other spore measurements in detailed descriptions.
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R raphanoid	Having an odour characteristic of radish.
RBG, Kew	Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Recommended English Name	See under REN.
Red Data List	Established in 1964, the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species has evolved to become the world's most comprehensive information source on the global extinction risk status of animal, fungus and plant species. Info from https://www.iucnredlist.org
reflexed	(Of a cap) curling upwards at the margin.
REN	Recommended English Name - a growing and officially approved list of English names for fungi drawn up by the BMS. Available online at https://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/resources/english-names#uk%20species
resupinate	Any fungus that lies flat on its substrate with its fertile surface facing outwards. (The word can be used either as a noun or an adjective.)
reticulation	(Of stems, caps, spores) a regular network-like pattern.
rhizomorph	A mycelial cord or strand thick enough to be easily visible. Common species which produce rhizomorphs are Armillaria mellea (Honey Fungus) having thick black rhizomorphs, Megacollybia platyphylla (Whitelaced Shank) and the eggs of Phallus impudicus (Stinkhorn) having white rhizomorphs.
ring zone	(Of mushroom stems) a small area on the upper stem with a subtly different colour or texture - left by the remnants of a partial veil, cortina or disintegrated ring. Often best seen with a x10 handlens. See also under annulus, cortina and partial veil.
rugose	(Of fungal surfaces) wrinkled or faintly ridged.
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S saccate	(Of stem base) having a volva that is deep and baggy, shaped like a pouch or sack.
saprobe or saprotroph, saprobic, saprophytic, saprotrophic	Two alternative nouns used as a general term for those fungi which feed off dead plant and animal material - the decomposers; three alternative adjectives describing such fungi.
scabers	See under squamules.
sclerotium(-a)	The Latin term for a tiny hardened lump, formed from a mass of hyphae, found at the base of a few fungal species. The function of sclerotia is to provide the organism with food reserves in times of extreme environmental conditions.
scrobiculae	The Latin term for the small pits / indentations / pockmarks found on some Lactarius species. Their presence or absence can be significant in identification.
serrate	(Of mushroom gills) having a notched / toothed / saw-like edge (sometimes best seen with a X10 handlens).
sessile	(Of any fungus) lacking a stem.
sexual form	See under teleomorph below.
sinuate	(Of gills) having an attachment to the stem very similar to emarginate, ie with a notch immediately before the point of attachment. (See Document 4 entitled All about gills and gill attachmentfor further explanation and images.)
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s.l.	An abbreviated form of sensu lato - a Latin phrase meaning 'in a broad sense'. Often placed after a species name indicating a complex of species previously given that name.
slime mould	A colloquial term for a myxomycete. See Document 11 entitled All about slime moulds.
sp./ spp.	A shortened form of 'species unknown' / or in the plural (spp.) indicating a number of undentified species within a genus. See also under genus above.
spathulate	(Of a fruitbody or apothecia) spoon-shaped.
species	The Latin taxonomic term for the class / level of an organism just below Genus, following after the genus name to form the official binomial name of that organism. See also under genus, binomial and epithet.
spines	(Of some basidiomycetes) the spore-bearing 'teeth' or needle-like protrusions on the underside of a cap in place of gills or pores. Also occurring in some brackets which are known collectively as hydnoids, ie similar to the genus Hydnum (Hedgehog).
sporangium(-a)	(Of slime moulds) a general term meaning the spore-bearing casing / structure above the stalk (if present). See Document 11 entitled All about slime moulds.
sporocarp	(Of myxomycetes) the spore-bearing part of the organism.
sporulate(-ing)	(Of any fungus) a verb meaning the act of releasing spores.
squamose	A term meaning covered in distinct raised scales ie with edged curving upwards.
squamules / squamulose	A term meaning the small fibrous flecks / markings (sometimes called flocks or scabers) seen mainly on the stems of the genus Leccinum where their colour, also position on the stem, can be important when determining to species. A further meaning is for small or tiny flattish scales, or having such scales, ie less distinct than squamose scales.
s.s.	An abbreviated form of sensu stricto - a Latin phrase meaning 'in the strict sense'. Often placed after a species name indicating that specific species rather than a complex of species previously given that name.
	Back to the top of Glossary
SSSI	Site of Specific Scientific Interest.
sterigma(-ta)	(Of basidiomycetes) the Latin term for the prong on the tip of a basidium on which a spore develops; most basidia have four sterigmata. (See Document 3 entitled All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes).
stipe	An alternative term for the stem of a mushroom.
stipitate	A term used to describe any fungus having a stem.
stomach fungi	See gasteroid fungi.
striate	A term meaning having fine more-or-less parallel lines or streaks, often occurring on the outer half of a cap, on a stem or on the surface of a stem ring.
strigose	(Of any surface) covered in fine stiff hairs; mainly referring to the stem base having fine white mycelial strands affixing the fungus to its substrate.
stroma(-ta)	A Latin term for the base of some ascomycetes, the pyrenomycetes in particular, formed from a mass of hyphae and often black. (See Document 3 entitled All about basidiomycetes and ascomycetes)
subdecurrent	(Of gill attachment) describing gills that run just a short distant down the stem, thus not fully decurrent. See also under decurrent above.
substrate	A term for the material (be it soil, wood, litter etc) that a fruitbody is emerging from and which therefore has the main bulk of the organism living within it.
sulcate	(Of a mushroom cap) deeply furrowed.
symbiotic	A term meaning mutually beneficial to both parties, ie in mycorrhizal fungi both the fungus and host plant live together in harmony.
synonym	(In mycology) another possibly previous name for a particular species, now no longer in use.
	Back to the top of Glossary
T taxonomy	A term meaning the classification of all living organisms based on their natural relationships and DNA.
teleomorph	A term for the sexual stage of some fungi which also have an asexual stage. See also under anamorph.
tomentose(-um)	(Of the surface of caps or stems) appearing densely woolly, velvety, or thickly covered with soft hairs.
trama	A Latin term for the flesh within any fungus, ie inside the cap and stem.
tube	A general term for the tubelike spore-producing cells within the trama of those basidiomycetes which lack gills or spines but have pores.
turbinate	(Of apothecia) shaped like a spinning top; flattened at the apex and tapering towards the base.
type / type description	(In mycology) the original fungus specimen or collection from which the species was first officially described and published / the description which accompanied that particular fungus.
	Back to the top of Glossary
U umbo	(Of a mushroom cap) a raised central mound or swelling, sometimes acute (sharply pointed), sometimes obtuse (gently rounded).
umbonate	(Of a cap) having an umbo.
universal veil	The protective membrane that surrounds the entire immature fruitbody at the primordial stage, ie before emergence. In many species this is soon lost leaving no trace but in certain genera remnants remain, ie the white flecks on the caps of many Amanita species, also signs of veil in Cortinarius and Inocybe. See also under velar remnants and volva.
	Back to the top of Glossary
V var.	A shortened form of the word variety indicating a recognised variation of a particular species but not distinct enough to warrant species status, ie Amanita citrina var. alba.
velar or veil remnants	A term for the arachnoid patches or spots (usually whitish) sometimes left on the caps or stem bases of young mushrooms - all that remains of the universal veil. They often wash off in wet weather, also can be easily rubbed off and tend to vanish before maturity. Their colour, size, shape and thickness can be significant for identification. The best example of veil remnants surely has to be the white 'spots' on the cap of Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric).
ventricose	(Of gills / stem / microscopic cells) centrally swollen or bloated.
vinaceous	The colour of red wine.
violaceous	The colour of violet.
viscid	(Of any fungal surface) slimy or sticky. In dry weather this can be hard to detect but a good clue is if there are remnants of debris / leaves / soil still attached. Moistening a finger then touching the cap can also sometimes reveal if the surface is tacky rather than dry.
volva	The Latin term for the sack, envelope or cup-like swelling at the stem base found in a few mushroom genera, notably Amanita and Volvopluteus. Formed from the remains of the universal veil after the stem and cap have erupted, it can be substantial, fleeting, tight, baggy, coloured on the inside or outside, have scales, banding or a gutter at the top. All features can be diagnostic.
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Z zonate	(Of a cap or stem) having concentric bands or layers of different colour or texture.
	Back to the top of Glossary

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Document 10

All about TRUFFLES

What are truffles?

Truffles are hypogeous fungi, ie those that develop and mature underground. Some species are erumpent in nature, ie bursting through the ground at maturity (e.g. Octaviania, Rhizopogon), others never break the surface.

All hypogeous fungi can loosely be called truffles though some genera are ascomycetes and some are basidiomycetes. For those people purely interested in gourmet / edible species the term truffle is used to indicate only the genus Tuber which includes all the edible species. Mycologists, however, tend to reserve the name Truffle (with upper case T) to indicate only the ascomycete hypogeous species, applying the term False Truffle to the basidiomycete hypogeous species. Confusingly their English names (if they exist) rarely differentiate between the two groups, the majority being simply Truffles.

Click on any small image to view at full size

Octaviania asterosperma (Chalky White Truffle)

Melanogaster broomeanus (Broome's Slime Truffle)

Tuber rufum (Red Truffle)

How to tell if a truffle is a basidio or an asco

Truffles have evolved to develop and reach maturity underground. Interestingly and possibly surprisingly, the DNA era has revealed that many epigeous (ie aboveground) genera of fungi - both basidios and ascos - are represented in truffle form, there being no similarity in either general appearance or method of spore dispersal between the truffle member and its epigeous genus though microscopic similarities exist, eg spore shape and ornamentation. In the field it is usually possible to differentiate basidiomycete truffles from ascomycete truffles. Asco truffles typically have either a dusty, spore-laden, interior (e.g. Elaphomyces), a hollow or intricately folded interior (e.g. Genea, Hydnotrya), or a marbled interior (e.g. Tuber, Hydnocystis). Basidio truffles are more typically chambered (more like the interior of an Aero chocolate bar, only with much smaller hollows).

Examples:

• Russula cerea (syn. Gymnomyces xanthosporus) is a hypogeous species in the Russulaceae (a basidio)

• The genera Rhizopogon and Octaviania are members of the Boletales (also basidios)

• The genera Tuber and Hydnotrya are in the Pezizales (ascos)

Why do truffles stay underground?

There are advantages to developing underground: growing conditions are likely to be more stable (e.g. fewer fluctuations in moisture levels and temperature) and there is a lower risk of being ingested prior to maturity.

How do truffles disperse their spores?

Since they grow underground, truffles require a mechanism for broadcasting spores to a wider area. Their solution is to give off a strong aroma at maturity which is detectable at the soil surface and which attracts the attention of foraging animals (primarily mammals) which grub them up, ingest them, and spread the spores via their faeces. Many truffles develop at a rather leisurely rate below ground compared to their aboveground relatives. It is worth bearing in mind that during spells of warmer weather when epigeous fungi (those above ground) are thin on the ground, truffles can often still be found below ground. There are a wide variety of aromas in truffles, although garlicky, musky, and fruity are the more commonly encountered smells.

Where do truffles like to grow?

Most species in genus Tuber prefer alkaline soil, however many other truffles can be found in a range of soil types (e.g. Elaphomyces spp. are often found in more acid soils). Localised pockets of both alkaline and neutral soils can often occur within predominantly acid habitats. Towns and cities, where soils may well have been imported, can have a wide variety of soil types. I have found many different species in the largely acid and neutral environs of Manchester and West Yorkshire. Do not assume that truffles don't grow in your area: they are pretty much ubiquitous in the UK so it is more than likely that some species will be growing nearby.

Where and when to go looking

The vast majority of truffles are mycorrhizal with trees so it stands to reason that a good place to look is under or near to suitable partner trees. Oak, Birch, Linden (ie Lime), Hornbeam and Beech have proved to be the most fruitful hosts in my experience, however Willow, Hazel, Pine, Larch, Spruce, Fir, and Eucalyptus amongst others are all truffle hosts.

From early summer to the first heavy leaf-fall of autumn the manicured lawns of parks and gardens, also grassy-verges are excellent places for finding truffles since it is easy to spot the telltale 'dig holes' against the green background - more on this to follow. Grass cover allows for greater moisture-retention, so in summertime these habitats are typically much more fruitful than the drier leaf litter and bare soil of woodlands. In wet summers and through autumn woodlands are also excellent habitats for truffles but excavation holes are far less easy to spot against a leaf or soil background.

What are DIG HOLES?

Dig holes or excavation holes are made by small mammals (squirrels and mice etc) digging to uncover a truffle which they've detected from its aroma. When seeking out truffles without the aid of a trained dog or pig, the key to success is to look for evidence of these holes - the signs that indicate truffles are in the vicinity. It's worth considering that not all dig holes are truffle-related, however a LOT are. Recognising what isn't a truffle-related dig hole can save a lot of fruitless time-wasting, so is a skill worth developing.

An example of a dig hole
with acorn scraps

Acorn excavations are very common, particularly the year following a mast-year. Look out for acorn-shaped secondary holes within the dig hole, and/or the give-away signs of discarded acorn peelings or scraps beside the hole. This applies equally to other nuts such as hazelnuts, etc.

Animal burrows. Generally avoid any hole if you can't see the bottom of it. Animal latrines where the faeces of rabbit, fox, or badger are in evidence within a scrape or dig can also fool one initially.

Mushroom stems - all that remains of mushrooms which have been picked, eaten or just decayed can leave holes in the grass or soil but these tend to appear uniformly cylindrical rather than as scrappy dig holes.

Dig hole size: Truffle-related dig holes can vary from small scrapes in the grass/soil to large golf-ball size excavations. Sometimes a well-defined secondary hole can be seen within the main hole where the exposed truffle has already been removed from the hole by the foraging mammal.

Four examples of truffle-related dig holes

Why look for dig holes if the truffles have already been removed?

The presence of genuine dig holes gives us an excellent clue that truffles are in the area. Like mushrooms above ground, truffles tend to develop in groups underground, and a foraging animal (usually a squirrel) will often remove just the mature (smelly) specimens of the bunch. So with a little gentle excavation to extend the width of an existing hole, further specimens often pop up. With larger species of truffle, the foraging animal may struggle to remove the entire fruitbody, simply nibbling the exposed flesh, so finding partially eaten truffles still in the hole is quite a frequent occurrence. I've even found entire truffles that have been dropped back into the dig hole, presumably when the animal was disturbed during excavation. Occasionally truffles can develop underground in a 'fairy ring', and this can be detected when a series of dig holes form a well-defined circle. This is a sure sign that the dig holes are truffle-related rather than e.g. acorn-related. Small dig holes in grass can easily be missed but one clue to their presence can be a tuft or scattering of dried grass and/or moss left on the grass surface by the scavenger. On closer inspection dig holes can often then be discovered. If you're lucky enough to have suitable host trees or hedging in your garden, do keep a look out for squirrel activity in those areas. Catching truffle-excavators in the act can increase ones chances of finding fresh truffles.

How to assess dig holes

Having located a likely hole, initially you need to visually assess it, looking for evidence of truffle scraps (which can be sufficient for identification in some cases) or the exposed surface of a buried truffle. Next you can prod around with a finger extending the hole slightly, whilst feeling for resistance. Stones, for example, obviously feel very hard, but truffles when felt tend to have a bit of give in them. It's worth noting that the size of dig hole can vary from less than an inch to a good few inches across. In grassed areas it is advisable to minimise how far you extend the dig holes but in leaf litter or needle-duff you could extend each hole by anything from a few inches up to about a square foot. It is important to avoid more extensive excavation than is necessary in order to limit damage to the local ecosystem, including mycelium. The most fruitful dig holes are usually those that have been made fairly recently. If the soil at the surface looks moist, even on a dry day, then a hole is likely to be very recent, increasing the chances of finding fresh specimens. Conversely, holes that have cobwebs over them are usually poor candidates for finding fresh specimens. Once detected, truffles can be removed with further excavation or using a blunt knife such as an artist's palette knife. Once unearthed, make notes about the colour of the peridium (outer layer) and any colour changes over time. The aroma of the truffle may be absent if immature but do note any interesting smells. These clues may prove invaluable when it comes to identifying your finds later.

Don't forget! Once you've finished investigating, it is essential to cover over any excavation holes, replacing the surrounding soil and litter etc to 'make good' any disturbance to the forest floor as best you can.

Tip

• Once an actively producing site has been located, one further technique to increase your number of fruitbodies - both in number and different species - is to (literally) put your nose to the ground! Though a poor alternative to a dog's nose, the human nose can detect truffle aromas at the soil surface without much difficulty. If in a public space, it does take a certain kind of thick skinned individual to apply this method in earnest. But it does work!

How deep should one look?

Most truffles grow within the top 2-3 inches of soil (although they will sometimes grow deeper), so limiting excavation to this kind of depth is usually sufficient. I rarely dig any deeper than 2 inches.

Don't give up! I should add that it can often be disheartening prodding in multiple holes and failing to find anything. This process is definitely a numbers game. Keep looking and eventually you WILL have success. Over time it is possible to hone your skills enabling you to recognise locations that look likely to yield truffles, thus wasting less time examining e.g. old or acorn-related dig-holes.

Tips

• Since soil can contain sharp stones and broken glass, you may want to consider taking a gardening glove with you for prodding around. This will reduce your sensitivity to detecting resistance in the soil but can still be effective. Another option is to use a short-stemmed screwdriver which can be stirred in the hole firmly enough to loosen up the soil but taking care not to damage any truffles within.

• A site that is favourable to one species of truffle will often have multiple species growing at the same time. I frequently find 2, 3 or even 4 species under the same tree. Revisiting successful sites in subsequent years can also be profitable when different species may well show up there.

Above left: three different species found close together - Melanogaster broomeanus, Tuber rufum and Hymenogaster sp.

Above centre: two different species found close together - Tuber rufum and Hymenogaster sp.

Above right: two different species found close together - Tuber aestivum and Russula cerea (syn. Gymnomyces xanthosporus)]

Truffle records in the UK

Many of our UK truffle records have a south-west trend. One might assume that this is an indication of the best area to find them; however, records don't necessarily reflect the true picture. Lilian Hawker (1908-1991), a mycologist at Bristol University, surveyed truffles with her students from 1948-1953, primarily in Avon, Somerset and Gloucestershire. Her work, together with the extensive records produced over this timeframe, has done much to extend our understanding of truffles in the UK. However, most parts of the UK haven't had the benefit of this level of focus and record numbers from any one area are likely to reflect the amount of research (or lack of it) carried out there rather than the true level of occurrence. Truffles generally feature only as very occasional finds on the majority of UK fungi recording group forays. Finding truffles takes time, patience and a particular technique, however it is reasonably easy to have success with persistence. The assumption is often that truffles are rare and unlikely to be found. However, the paucity of records compared to those for fungi found above ground is largely a reflection of their underground habit. Out of sight, out of mind. The following quote sums it up nicely:

"Truffles are, in fact, easier to find than most people realise. Looking for them is both challenging and fun." David Arora, 1986.

A few common species to look out for

The most commonly recorded hypogeous species in the UK is Rhizopogon luteolus, an erumpent species that grows with Pine, and in most if not all cases will have been spotted protruding through the soil surface. Two species of Elaphomyces, E. granulatus and E. muricatus, are the next most frequently recorded. These, however, develop and remain underground at maturity and, as anyone actively searching for truffles will know, are by far the most common species you're likely to encounter. They are both almost certainly many times more abundant than the Rhizopogon though this is not reflected in record numbers. A note on genus Elaphomyces: This group of fungi are slow-growing and can be found throughout the year. They develop a tough, warted outer cortex, and have a low moisture content compared to other hypogeous species. As such they are happy growing slowly in e.g. dry, bare, beech woodlands. In the summer months, Elaphomyces are the ONLY species of truffle I've found in this habitat during sustained dry conditions. Most other hypogeous fungi need more amenable habitats where moisture levels are at least a bit higher. I've found truffles near streams, rivers and ponds though the majority of my finds haven't been close to a water source. However, I do avoid areas where the soil is baked and cracked or looking particularly dry. As mentioned above, grassed areas do a good job of retaining moisture sufficient to favour truffle growth. With moisture levels in mind, looking near to and below moisture-retaining logs may be fruitful. It is suggested that truffles can sometimes be found growing within the punky wood of decaying logs, although I have no experience of this.

Truffle lookalikes to be aware of

Plant material such as bulbs, tubers, corms etc. are often excavated by foraging animals and can be found in dig holes when looking for truffles. Animal faeces can look pretty 'truffly' at times too! Some fungi are easily mistaken for truffles by novices, including Earthballs (Scleroderma spp.), Puffballs (Lycoperdon spp. etc.), and the eggs of Stinkhorns (Phallus spp. etc.). It is important to note that immature mushroom primordia often develop below ground before making their way through the surface as they grow. Often these primordia look obviously like tiny mushrooms, but some genera - Amanita being one - develop within a universal veil or sac and their primordia (sometimes called a button at this stage) look like a small ball or egg that could be mistaken for a truffle. On cutting an Amanita button in half its distinct mushroom structures (ie cap, stem and even gills) should be visible. As mentioned earlier, mushroom-munching slugs will sometimes leave behind remnants of the stem base which when found could be superficially mistaken for a partially nibbled truffle in a hole. I've been fooled by this a few times, only to discover the error under the microscope where the expected truffle features have been absent. A final 'truffle-alike' that is easy to be fooled by is the root gall of the wasp Andricus quercusracicis that develops at the base of Oaks. This gall is sufficiently truffle-like for the wasp to be named Truffle Gall Wasp. Once cut open the flesh of the gall, if licked, will pucker the tongue due to high levels of tannins.

a Cyclamen corm

a bird poo masquerading as a Hymenogaster

a mushroom stem base,

galls of the Truffle Gall Wasp.

Basic information and photos of some British Truffles

There are 90+ species of hypogeal fungi known in the UK and, by matching technique with suitable habitat, all may potentially be unearthed. Part of the fun of truffle-hunting is the complete lottery of possibilities. You never know which species will show up. Apart from the very large dig holes typical of excavations of Tuber aestivum (Summer Truffle), most truffle-related dig holes are somewhat similar in size and general appearance. On finding truffles in a hole, it is well worth exploring other nearby holes as well since it's not uncommon for multiple species to be found under the same tree at one time.

Genus Elaphomyces (False Truffles) This group of truffles are the most frequently encountered in the UK, being widespread and common. They typically have a hard, granular exterior, with a black, dusty spore mass in the interior. They play host to various parasitic fungi in the genus Tolypocladium (Truffle Clubs) which sprout fruiting spikes above ground (quite similar to genus Geoglossum) from the underground truffle and are visible on the woodland floor. Careful excavation of the fungus will reveal the truffle host beneath. Right: Tolypocladium ophioglossoides (Snaketongue Truffleclub) growing from Elaphomyces sp.
Elaphomyces muricatus (Marbled False Truffle) is common throughout deciduous woodland in the UK. The Latin muricatus means roughened with small sharp points, describing the exterior surface. A cross-section reveals the outer layers having a marbled pattern, not featured in other members of the genus.	Elaphomyces muricatus
Elaphomyces granulatus (False Truffle) is similar to E. muricatus above but has a smoother less roughened exterior surface and lacks the marbled pattern. It is found with both coniferous and deciduous woodland. NB. There are a number of newly described species of Elaphomyces, so any material that doesn't quite fit with either E. granulatus or E. muricatus would be good candidates for DNA sequencing.	Elaphomyces granulatus
Genus Hydnotrya (The Fold Truffles) The genus Hydnotrya is related to Gyromitra, the False Morels, and produces fruitbodies which are convoluted, folded and hollowed.
Hydnotrya cubispora (Cubed Fold Truffle) is an introduced species found in conifer plantations mostly in the north of the UK. Whilst there are very few records for this species, I encountered it in three different locations in a six week period, a strong indication that truffle records really don't reflect the true picture under the ground. This species has very distinct cuboid spores.	Hydnotrya cubispora
Hydnotrya tulasnei (Red Fold Truffle) is an uncommon find under deciduous trees. It is less hollowed and folded than the above species, with a red/brown interior. It has large golden spherical spores (20-30µm)	Hydnotrya tulasnei
Genus Tuber (True Truffles) This is the genus in which most of sought-after gourmet species are found. Depending on the species they vary from pea to potato-sized and the surface of the peridium (outer layer) can be warted, smooth or slightly hairy. Microscopic examination is required to identify some species, however others are distinct enough for field identification.
Tuber aestivum (Summer Truffle) The Summer Truffle is a common species with a preference for alkaline soil types. In summertime I usually find this species in association with Oak, but it also likes to grow with Hazel, Beech and Hornbeam amongst others. The large dig holes (reflecting the size of the truffle) associated with animal excavations of this species are reasonably distinct, and often contain unharvested or partially eaten specimens. The spores are spiny. (See also right hand image under 'Tips' near the beginning above.)	Tuber aestivum
Tuber rufum (Red or Cinnamon Truffle) This is probably the most common species of the genus in the UK (although it is known to be a species complex so may represent a number of distinct species). This little truffle is widespread, usually under deciduous trees. At maturity it develops a strong smoky aroma reminiscent of smoked almonds. The spores are spiny.	Tuber rufum
Tuber borchii (Whitish Truffle) This small to medium-sized species is an uncommon find in the UK, occurring under both deciduous and coniferous trees. At maturity it gives off a very strong 'truffly' aroma, probably the strongest of the UK species. The spores have a honeycomb-like mesh on their surface.	Tuber borchii
Tuber rapaeodorum This small species looks similar to Tuber rufum when young, but as it matures it develops a strong punchy smell with components of both garlic and radish. The spores have a distinctly uniform honeycomb-like mesh; the size of each mesh together with Q ratio (spore length divided by spore width) help to differentiate it from the similar T. puberulum, T. foetidum and T. dryophilum.	Tuber rapaeodorum
Genus Balsamia In the UK this genus is represented by two species very similar in appearance that require a microscope to separate. Recognising the genus in the field is relatively easy owing to its reddish-brown surface which is covered in small raised warts. At maturity both species give off a yeasty truffly to unpleasant aroma.
Balsamia platyspora (Broad-Spored Balsamia) This small species is uncommon in the UK. It has broader spores and thicker peridial cells than B. vulgaris below.	Balsamia platyspora
Balsamia vulgaris is a small to medium-sized species which has narrower spores and thinner peridial cells than B. platyspora above. It is rarely recorded in the UK.	Balsamia vulgaris
Paurocotylis pila (Scarlet Berry Truffle) This truffle is an introduced species from New Zealand, first recorded here in 1973. It remains uncommon, usually found growing under berry trees such as Yew or Rowan. It appears that the red fruitbodies are ingested by foraging birds, hence their occurrence near fruit trees. Unusually, this truffle is saprotrophic rather than  mycorrhizal as in other truffles and consequently tends to be transient, rarely occurring in the same place twice. This is one of our erumpent species, bursting through the soil at maturity.	Paurocotylis pila
Genus Hymenogaster (The Nut Truffles) This is a fairly large group of relatively small white or yellow False Truffles (basidiomycetes). The gleba (inner-flesh) of these truffles is extensively chambered. They typically have yellow-brown limoniform spores. Spore size together with presence or absence of a mucronate apex (sharp point) and / or myxosporium (a layer on the spore surface) can aid identification.	Genus Hymenogaster
Octaviania asterosperma (Chalky False Truffle) This small to medium-sized white truffle stains dark blue/black when damaged or handled. It is an uncommon species occurring in damp Beech woodlands on calcareous soil. Under the microscope the star-shaped spores are distinctive. This is another erumpent species and can sometimes be seen bursting through mossy banks at maturity.	Octaviania asterosperma
Genus Melanogaster (The Slime Truffles) These are a small group of dark-spored False Truffles closely related to the basidomycete mushroom genus Paxillus (Roll-Rim).  At maturity the gleba become wet and slimy, developing a range of smells, from fruity to repugnant.
Melanogaster broomeanus (Broome's Slime Truffle) This fairly common truffle develops a pervasive aroma of ripe pears at maturity. Its spores are the smallest of the three species within this genus which occur in the UK. It was historically known as Bath Truffle and was apparently sold at markets there.	Melanogaster broomeanus
Melanogaster ambiguus (Stinking Slime Truffle) Another fairly common and widespread species, it develops the disgusting stench of landfill gasses at maturity. A single mature specimen was said to make a room uninhabitable, and I can attest to this! The spores are distinctive: dark brown and limoniform.	Melanogaster ambiguus spores.
Rhizopogon - (also False Truffles) This is a group of False Truffles found growing in association with conifers and related to the Boletes. Most are erumpent, so are found above ground at maturity.
Rhizopogon luteolus (Yellow False Truffle) Compared to most other truffles, there are large numbers of records for this species - no doubt a reflection of its visibility above ground at maturity. It is particularly common in Caledonian Pine forests. The spores of this species are sold as a soil innoculant to enhance plant growth.	Rhizopogon luteolus

Some Useful Reference Material:

Truffles - A Revision of British Truffles (D. N. Pegler et al., 1993)

British Hypogeous Fungi (Lilian Hawker, 1953) available free online via:
www.ascofrance.com/uploads/forum_file/Hawker-British-Hypogeous-Fungi-0001.pdf

Facebook Group: Hypogeous Fungi of Europe

Three Rarely Recorded Truffles (Carol Hobart) in Field Mycology Vol 10 (1)

Eucalyptus - A Host for fungal Aliens New to the UK (Carol Hobart) in Field Mycology Vol 13 (2)

Tuber mesentericum Recorded in Britain in 2011 (Carol Hobart) in Field Mycology Vol 12 (1)

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Document 11

All about SLIME MOULDS

Have you ever found some tiny white/orange dots, growing on decaying logs on the woodland floor and wondered what they are? Take a closer look with a x10 lens and you just might find yourself being drawn into the fascinating world of slime moulds. This is how BFG photographer, Barry Webb, began an interest that rapidly developed into an obsession with these tiny organisms. He found his first slime mould in 2019 on one of our BFG walks and became instantly intrigued.

Where slime moulds fit within natural history

The Myxomycetes - the official name for slime moulds, also sometimes abbreviated to myxos - were for many years classified within Kingdom Fungi with which they share a number of characteristics, but they are now classified within Protista - previously classed as a Kingdom but recently demoted. Like many species of fungi they are saprobic, feeding off their substrate and thereby accelerating decomposition. The species that you are most likely to come across belong to the acellular slime moulds which are often found in woodland in cool, damp, shady places on decaying logs, branches, twigs and leaf litter. They can, however, be found in a diverse range of other environments including on living plants, in aquatic environments, in snow melt areas and even in deserts. Many slime moulds, like fungi, are associated with specific species of trees.

Myxomycetes go through an array of different stages in their development. This is well illustrated by the following set of photos of the fairly common species Badhamia utricularis (incidentally, extremely few slime moulds have English names).

Badhamia utricularis

Click on any small image to view at full size

The life cycle of Badhamia utricularis, starting with the plasmodium (top left) and ending with the fully mature sporocarp cluster (bottom right). This quite common species is distinctive in its habit of hanging like a bunch of grapes from its substrate, as seen here.

Plasmodium

This is the first visible stage when the organism is gaining enough energy to continue development, also the stage giving rise to their colloquial name of slime mould. The organism literally 'moves about' on the substrate, changing shape as it seeks out, engulfs and then feeds on bacteria, fungal hyphae and yeast. (There are amazing time-lapse videos available on YouTube which show plasmodium pulsing and moving around in their search for nutrients.) At this stage the organisms appears like a network of slimy connected threads. As a general rule, identification of individual species, or even genera, is well nigh impossible from plasmodium. Even species having an entirely different appearance when fully mature can have identical plasmodium, though there are a few exceptions.

Fuligo septica var. flava

The image to the right is of the plasmodium of one of our commonest species, Fuligo septica var. flava, typically spreading from a stick over the surrounding litter in search of nutrients.

Development from plasmodium to sporocarp

Once the plasmodium has finished feeding it becomes static and settles down, triggering the start of the extraordinary process of metamorphosis for which slime moulds are renowned. Gradually the shape of the sporocarp - the equivalent of a fungal fruiting body - begins to emerge, often going through various changes in both colour (often startlingly vivid) and shape before drying out and reaching the final mature stage. This process can happen over a matter of hours and at this stage the slime mould is extremely delicate and vulnerable. Even a single drop of rain or the gentlest of touches can be destructive and prevent further development.

The image to the right is an example of the diverse colours and forms of sporocarps.

Top row, L to R: Lamproderma violaceum, Stemonitopsis typhina, Cribraria aurantiaca (or possibly C. piriformis!)

Bottom row, L to R: Hemitrichia calyculata, Metatrichia vesparium, Arcyria denudata.

The mature sporocarp

As its name suggests, the role of the sporocarp is to produce and disperse the spores, a process known as dehiscing. It is at this stage that you are most likely to come across slime moulds. Each sporocarp is typically only between 1-5mm tall and these organisms can appear in a stunning variety of colours and forms. They are now dry, bearing no resemblance to the plasmodium stage and gradually crack open to allow spore release, triggered by the slightest movement of air current and also spread by small insects, springtails and certain beetle species. Once fully dried out they can survive for long periods and at this stage can be carefully collected and preserved for future reference and study.

Metatrichia floriformis

The image to the right is of another common species, Metatrichia floriformis, having cracked open to release spores which are lodged amongst the hairy mass of 'elators' before blowing away. The species name refers to the petal-like shape formed when the cracking open occurs.

Identification

It is at this final stage that identification can take place, now that all features - both macroscopic and microscopic - are mature.

Myxomycetes can be found year-round except in drought conditions when they tend to go into a dormant state. Many species are, however, seasonal. Species in the genus Cribraria occur in summer, whereas most of the leaf litter genera such as Lamproderma and Didymium are found during the colder months.

Left: the summer species Cribraria mirabilis Right: the winter species Lamproderma scintilans

Barry answers some commonly asked questions:

Q. Where do you search for slime moulds?

A. I find most of the slime moulds I photograph in areas of ancient woodland. However, I have also found them on woodchip piles, on decaying logs in my garden, on piles of cut vegetation and even on rotten fenceposts. A good place to start looking for slime moulds is on decaying, fallen trees and branches. I find trees with no bark, where the wood is becoming soft, particularly productive.

Q. How do you search for slime moulds?

A. I usually get down on my knees and use a small torch to scan fallen trees, branches and leaf litter. Once I've located some slime moulds, I then use a x10 loupe to examine them more closely.

Q. When do you find slime moulds?

A. I have found slime moulds all year round. The only times that I have not found them has been during prolonged dry spells or when they have been covered by a layer of snow.

Q. How many different species of slime moulds are there in the UK?

A. At a very rough estimate around 65 different genera and around 600 species.

Q. How do you go about identifying slime moulds?

A. I use a selection of identification books but compared to the number of fungi books available they are few and far between and tend to be somewhat technical and not particularly user-friendly! One handbook which contains at least a few slime moulds is 'Collins Complete Guide to Mushrooms and Toadstools' by Sterry & Hughes. An excellent introductory book to slime moulds is 'Where The Slime Mould Creeps' by Sarah Lloyd. I am also a member of a very informative Facebook group called Slime Mold Identification and Appreciation. This group has a huge following, including many extremely helpful world slime mould experts. Some slime moulds can be identified by examining them with a x10 lens but many need microscopy for a positive identification.

Some common larger slime moulds which are quite easy to spot with the naked eye, often referred to by their unofficial English names.

Lycogala cf. terrestre

Lycogala cf. terrestre (Wolf's Milk). This species can range in colour between orange, peach, apricot or different shades of pink. It is now known to be a species complex, possibly with at least 12 different species (hence the cf. here indicating some doubt) though we have been naming any similar finds L. terrestre without question for years. The collection seen here is particularly bright orange therefore a likely candidate for one of the different species, possibly L. epidendrum or some as yet undescribed species! Lycogala is one of our commonest slime moulds, often seen in swarms on fallen rotting deciduous wood, each 'blob' anything up to 1 cm across. When mature it fades to pale beige, resembling tiny puffballs.

Fuligo septica var. flava

Fuligo septica var. flava (Dog's Vomit Slime Mould). This species often climbs up onto stumps and fallen branches, it can also be found on the woodland floor. The conspicuous bright patches can be anything up to 5 or 6 cm across or more. It gradually fades as it dries off, becoming crumbly with the black spore mass revealed within. The early plasmodium stage is also shown near the beginning of this document. This is also a very common species.

Ceratiomyxa porioides

Ceratiomyxa porioides (Honeycomb Coral Slime Mould). This beautiful and delicate species was until recently considered a rarity but is apparently now becoming much more widespread (certainly in the Chilterns). As with many slime moulds it should ideally be viewed with a x10 loupe in order to appreciate the detail.

Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa

Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa (Coral Slime Mould). This is much more common than the species above, equally delicate but formed of tiny erect branched structures resembling 'icicles', often covering quite large areas of wood. Both species are most often pure translucent white but can sometimes be bright yellow. They can be found on any bare rotting damp wood, both coniferous and deciduous.

Tubifera ferruginosa

Tubifera ferruginosa (Raspberry Slime Mould). This is one of the most striking and conspicuous species owing to its brilliant colour, varying from shades of red and pink, though peachy orange when immature as seen here. It is nearly always found on rotten conifer wood but occasionally appears on Beech or Birch.

Stemonitis sp.

Stemonitis sp. (Chocolate Tube Slime Mould - an American name). There are several very similar species in this genus, all needing microscopy to name reliably. As the American name suggests, the tight colonies turn a chocolate brown when mature, as seen to the right of the two immature pink groups. The commonest species is S. fusca - very probably the one in this photo, each individual having a dark 'stalk' which is about half its total height, the whole being anything up to 2 cm tall. They can be found on any fallen rotten wood.

Reticularia lycoperdon (Moon Poo). This is the largest single slime mould by a long way (anything up to 10 cm across) though many other species can form colonies which spread over vast areas. It starts out as a soft white mound, formed of tiny rounded bobbles similar to the top of a cauliflower, but soon starts to dry off forming a silvery grey skin. Finally the skin cracks open revealing the dark brown spore mass within. The Latin species name refers to its resemblance to the fungus genus Lycoperdon (Puffball). It is very common occurring on fallen wood and standing dead trunks when often seen feet off the ground.

Reticularia lycoperdon

Some unusual very small slime moulds which often get overlooked due to their diminutive size of around 1mm tall:

Craterium minutum

Craterium minutum. These tiny orangey-brown goblets have lids, tight shut to start with then opening and eventually falling away to expose the dark brown spores inside. Usually found loosely clustered on decaying vegetable matter, twigs or in leaf litter.

Lamproderma scintillans

Lamproderma scintillans (here seen on top of another slime mould Didymium squamulosum). More than one species can often be found in the same spot, and even climbing over each other! These two species are often found together in leaf litter during the winter months. The genus Lamproderma contains many iridescent species which glisten with a range of rainbow colours but are at their best when viewed with some magnification.

Diachea leucopodia

Diachea leucopodia. This is a spectacular but uncommon slime mould. It favours leaf litter and stems of both living and dead vegetation, sometimes found in very large quantities. It is known for climbing up quite high onto vegetation.

Physarum psittacinum.

Physarum psittacinum. This is another amazingly iridescent slime mould with vibrant orange stems. Although very colourful it is hard to spot due to its size, often less than 1mm tall. The plasmodium is easier to spot and is also vibrant orange.

For more amazing images visit Barry's website at
https://www.barrywebbimages.co.uk